USA and Chinese

This book reviews

 

In the past 30 years, no more clearly than Fei Zhengqing, more insightful strokes written about Chinese book. This is why this book is already and long-term is the classic reason.

Former US ambassador E O Reischauer

A smart, lively style, has the formidable academic achievement,...... A noble work.

Jonathan Spence

A magnificent, full of daring masterpiece, and its research Chinese pioneer identity matching.

Anne F Thurston

On 4000 China turmoil restless history in a very refined, clear style...... The meaning is profound, fascinating.

Arnold Isaacs

It is thought the desk necessary books.

"New York Times"

Several generations of scholars and the general public, to obtain relevant China knowledge and insight, be sure to read Fei Zhengqing's works.

Harvard University press

In order to reach the acme of perfection and refining the pen draws the outline of the Chinese civilization development is an immeasurable reference books in the next few decades.

"The New Republic"

The Chinese political system the most comprehensive introduction...... Load one's pages with references, full of good intentions.

"Detroit review"

For historians, it is the analysis of the new history of modern China; for students, it is the definitive guide to China; for diplomats and entrepreneurs, it successfully explored between China and the United States is elusive and most influential human emotion.

"Chinese Business Review"

Published in

Fei Zhengqing is a Sinologist America is also the world's most prestigious. His works and the main points represent the America mainstream views, to several generations of American scholars and politicians have a profound effect.

Publishing this (Fei Zhengqing Collection) to domestic readers understand overseas in China issues on the research results, a calm look at their history and culture of great significance. Because Fei Zhengqing is Chinese watchers western, look at Chinese nature also is in the Western perspective, therefore, he expressed in the book point of view does not represent our understanding, and even many view is that we can not agree, I hope the readers attention in reading.

The world knowledge press

Preface to the Fourth Edition

E · 0 · Reischauer

1948 , Fei Zhengqing's "American and Chinese" first born, deeply from all walks of life to praise, soon to become a classic. "Classic" is a word the enduring meaning, but the book is not all it as. After revised publication, its content has been increasing and development. In 1958 second, increased the victory of the Communist Party and the people's Republic of China in the first 10 years of experience. The 1971 third edition and analyzed after 10 years, this edition is even more popular than the first edition, and re affirmed the previous response to the book, that it is not only a classic, but a constantly keep up with the times of classics. The evaluation for the more down analysis of third 10 years of the fourth version, it will still be the correct.

The revised version means adding new material, to catch up with the times, and with people because of the passage of time of past events more clearly, and fixed some explanation. The author makes the two aspects of the work, but more importantly, with his new academic achievement, increased the amount of new knowledge and insights, which is not only about the event, even relates to early each Chinese history, has been traced back to the Paleolithic age. Fei Zhengqing do the work condition is very good, because of China vigorously promote problem in USA, his contribution than any man Du, and the authorities he quotes, mostly his own students, the research work of these people was his encouragement and guidance, and often guide the publication date. In this fourth edition, he not only limited to the earlier works conform to the times, but also according to the research results of recent, re wrote quite a few chapters.

S Wells in the first edition of this book in the preface to the first sentence: "Harvard University press to" foreign policy "readers can provide the most timely book, the most important and, American and China than Fei Zhengqing" "." In just 30 years later, it is still applicable for the fourth version. Chinese accounted for more than the whole of human 1/5 , and the Americans have the whole world, about 1/4 of wealth. Relations between the two powers, their mutual understanding or misunderstanding, their cooperation or friction, to determine the future of mankind will play a major role.

In the past 30 years, no more clearly than Fei Zhengqing, more insightful strokes written about Chinese book. The Americans know China, understanding Chinese traditional, modern history China turmoil restless, and Chinese mysterious status, no one like Fei Zhengqing big contribution. This book by the previous version left to those parts, still shining high perspicacity, and according to recent studies, the extension and processing. Those who care about China person, will be repeated reading these, obtain knowledge and fun. The length of new paragraph many presents the modern event, China present situation and Prospect of Sino US relations; which, in my opinion, is ever seen on these is not easy to explain the complicated problem the most clear and brief judge described very precisely. Fei Zhengqing is good at the perceptual knowledge in many aspects and thorough analysis combined with the wording. This is why this book has been and will cause long-term is a classic.

Preface

Written in 1983

Who if a published 35 book printed in the fourth edition, there are always some words to explain. Like any sincere Professor, I wrote this book is designed to introduce China to Americans, so that the two sides can friendly peaceful coexistence. But what are some things that happen? 1948 years after the first edition, we China in North Korea for three years (l950-1953 years). 1958 second edition was published, we in the southern border Chinese Vietnam played eight years (1965-1973 years). In 1971 third edition, with the 1972 2 months of President Nixon's visit to Beijing, our relations with the people's Republic of China began to normalize. But only until 1979 years, we began to remove the cold war with the Taiwan military alliance. We recognize that Beijing, but still sold arms to Taipei, and hope they can end the confrontation. However, Chinese account is not so easily removed, America intervention also won't end.

The book's own readers, I think because it summarizes our understanding of China. It is of course impossible, but Marco Polo from since hundreds of scholars have tried, but because Chinese make foreigners fascinated, also make Chinese oneself be in ecstasies over.

When I first started writing the book, I benefited from the two aspects of experience -- first, I in the old Chinese lived, worked four years as a graduate student in Beijing (1932-1935 ), and travel a lot of places, and served two years in the post America embassy, first 1942-1943 years in Chongqing, followed by 1945-1949 years in Nanjing, it is China Communist Party began to rise one's age. Second aspects of the experience from the Harvard, that is 1946 years after I study of partition plan for Chinese at Harvard results: this partition method using each kind of social science, and made me since 1936 years later in history teaching can make a careful and detailed analysis China harvard.

1983 version is influenced by two things: first, in the people's Republic of China actual observation, the impression that many of today's travelers familiar. I passed the entourage of Zhou Enlai, first 1943 years in Chongqing he met, and later in 1945 met. In 1972 5-7 months, my wife and I accept his invitation feiweimei, back to our thirty or forty's familiar places, visited six weeks. We found that this is the new countries and new people. After two visits in the years 1979 , I gather with friends, which makes me can be discussed and now. (see 1982 Fei Zhengqing published memoirs "50 years") is the second version fourth more profoundly, I benefited from many national scholars and journalists published in recent years hundreds of important books, monographs and articles and reports. These works listed in the bibliography, and I thank you for these people.

Rewrite the book is a kind of punishment. In a few years ago may have been expanded to today as everyone knows of a commonplace talk of an old scholar. History always potential development, some problems are forgotten, other things and replace sb. Usually I find talk and nonsense are deleted, I felt that the new academic achievements such as the tide, so I tried to use them to enrich it, and sometimes feel too busy to attend to all.

In 30 years (1949-1979 years) and after the two war, we learned how to treat China revolution. Our problem is we are still the same 4O 's China civil war in the failure of a party to an alliance. The basic problem is that we should be aware of how to resolve the impasse.

We take two steps to do this. The Republicans made the first step, the second step is the Democratic Party completed. 1972 years, President Nixon had a week's historic visit to Chinese. He and Premier Zhou Enlai jointly issued the "Shanghai Communique" attract sb.'s attention. Henry Kissinger and Vice Foreign Minister Qiao Guanhua held talks Chinese. This is based on a politician quality and to deal peacefully, the relations between the two countries is expected to normalization. Although it includes on the diplomatic relations between the two countries in many aspects of different statements. Beijing strongly opposes the plan -- "one Taiwan", " a China, two governments" and "two". Washington acknowledged that "the two sides of the Taiwan Straits Chinese belongs to a China, Taiwan is a part of" China, and promised not to "contrary to this position". This result to the Taiwan Relations in a tricky Washington subsidiary position. Chinese in order of arrival of consciousness is very strong, so Kissinger could hand in Shanghai announced that Beijing will achieve normalization, hand statement USA will comply with the 1954 agreement with the military security of the Republic of China (Taiwan signed a military alliance). The relations between big powers is the basis for global stability. China civil war is not yet finished, but it is a secondary issue, even if we get involved.

This is a very ambiguous situation than expected much longer. In 1973, as the predecessor of Liaison Office of Embassy in Washington and Beijing respectively set up. But in 1976 weeks and Mao's death in 1974, Nixon resigned because of Watergate, both sides are facing succession issues leaders.

In the secret negotiations, President Carter in 1978 December announced that from America recognize the people's Republic of China on January 1 , 1979, also no longer recognize Taiwan Republic of china. The US Taiwan military agreement of 1954 ended in 1980 January 1 day, but the United States Taiwan commercial, cultural and other relations to the unofficial name remain. On the basis of Chinese Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping on 1 1979, February visit to the United states. American in 30 years after finally changed his attitude, that the China civil war 40 time winner. We eventually admitted that represents a China people in Beijing instead of Taipei.

At the same time, we did not abandon our long-term ally, the principal -- the Taiwan regime. In 1979 March 10 day, Congress passed the "Taiwan relations act". Even when no diplomacy is recognized, it makes American laws and regulations to carry out in the Taiwan relations, and continued. Because Taiwan still requires China recognized it as the sole legal government, does not in any way seek to become independent state or of the "Republic of Taiwan", we selected the relatively easier. We cannot encourage Taiwan "unified" Chinese fantasy forever, but we can make full use of a fact that Taiwan is China only a four West Pacific provinces.

"Taiwan Relations Act" to allow the establishment of a USA institutions in Taiwan, staffed by foreign affairs official original, processing Taiwan Relations Based on all USA laws and regulations, these laws and regulations included in the January 1979 1 recently effect and continued effective treaties and international agreements, even if the government of Taiwan does not recognize. Peer to peer institutions in Taiwan for this unusual relationship arrangement called American affairs cooperation bureau. The two sides are not official. Based on the relationship and USA investment in Taiwan continue to grow. We also continue to have defensive weapons sales to Taiwan. Our long heritage of imperialism has not been completely cleared, still in the China domestic political maintained there.

In short, as the two powers have many common interests, hand American government drafted two normal policy, on one hand, encourage Congress to protect our economy and its relationship with Taiwan policy. Then the problem is: we are in different levels of the same both sides maintained a relationship, one is the official, is a non official. Should be regarded as a historical product of this situation, otherwise we will feel difficult to understand. America expansion (or imperialism), Chinese modern nationalism can be traced in the past, and now an outline of contemporary political picture. The Sino American relation is in the wrong way vacillating, different values and interests make mutual friction. 1980 years of Republican presidential candidate Ronald Reagan announced his strengthen us Taiwan Relations claims, he ignored the historical background, followed by Beijing and Washington long in dispute. After the two sides to negotiate the final in the 1982 in August issued a joint statement, started by Carter of the normalization of relations between the two countries to consolidate. USA promise not to increase assistance to Taiwan military specifications, and military assistance to Taiwan to terminate at some future time.

Mutual understanding of different motives other help to accept different points of the other side, it is our hope. Facing a real problem based on America together, have the opportunity to the common friendship and the two sides of the Taiwan Straits Chinese. We can work together on -- education, industrialization, arms control, energy, food, population, pollution etc.. We should seize this opportunity.

Draft article

The first chapter Chinese landscape

The fundamental problem of life Chinese people, often can be seen from the air at a glance: the erosion of hilly, muddy brown yellow river flood plain, small green fields, and save together form a shabby hut village, intricate net silver white rice terraces and waterways, is countless generations break back cooly labor witness -- all this is because of too many people, too crowded on too little land, so that people in order to maintain life, depletion of land resources and human wisdom and endurance.

Today in the people's Republic of China, small scattered arable land has been effectively and into larger fields, along the new road and mountain, planted millions of trees, from the electric pumping out water filled with construction of new pond and ditch. Chinese appearance has changed. But the population has doubled: now has about 10 billion.

The North South contrast

All across the land China that stretch as far as eye can see the grey sky, haze and clear any passengers, will be visible to see the typical two picture, a picture is the North China picture, a picture of Southern China. In the south of Beijing dry North China Plain early on, it was Chinese civilization the earliest mature place, where you can see the boundless green fields in summer, dotted with green plants a clusters of deep, that is the wall around the village trees. It's like our western scenery, where the farm and trees scattered on the ground, about half a mile apart from each other. But a farm our piece of the corn belt, a whole village is in the North China Plain. In Iowa or Illinois field, separated by a American farmhouse half mile place and the surrounding neighbors, together with their warehouse and the barn, in China became hundreds of people living, dotted with some trees of the whole village, the village also with intervals of about half a mile. Although USA people in history to farm for this, but the experience not to the dense population of bitterness, and that for all actions and thoughts of a China farmers can exert a subtle influence on.

Typical pictures be totally different in Southern China, with our common situation is no resemblance. Most of the time a year where rice soaked in water, so the air passengers to see is a sheet of water. The Green Zone undulating hills, rice terraces crescent extending from every hill at the foot of the upward, almost reached the top of the hill, and then on the other side from the top up layer down, inexhaustible, each ridge according to terrain construction, resembles a contour line on a map. In fact, rice terraces seen from the air of the curved block pattern, is a visible sign of the valley slope -- close to the mountain of the concave narrow terrace, the terrace became wider, to the bottom of it stretch to become big rice field. Many of the ridge has built on the grey stone path, forming a perplexing pattern, like any giant graffiti out. When the sun appeared, can see the paddy water surface is reflected from a bright shade air. In fact, the sun seems to be under the paddy fields as well as, therefore, composed of a ridge, and the beautiful mountain path pattern, as if under a rolling big screen suddenly emerged, black network from the silver bright water upward.

When you fly over the Rocky Mountains south, where it will wonder 10 billion China people live, what to eat -- such vast mountain and valley it seems most is not cultivated, and households also seems to be very rare. You can see the open view, reflected in the statistics on the fact is: it is estimated, Chinese 6/7 population to dense in 1/3 land. According to a rough estimate, Chinese did half the inhabited area is only about American corresponding area, four times the population of USA and support. This only lets per square mile arable Valley and the alluvial plain squeeze 2000 people can do. American about 57 million square miles of land is cultivated, and the area of arable land can be expanded; Chinese might have 45 million square miles of land (less than the average person has produces grain land intensive and meticulous farming half acre), even if the use of cultivated land, to expand a little more hope is very slim.

On the Chinese living in their crowded land, almost no complete statistics, but sampling study (research workers America had in this respect with the head) results, can give us some general impression. The north dry wheat millet production areas, with Southern China wet rice vary greatly. A line of the two economic zones around north the Yellow River Yangtze River as the boundary between 33 °. Let us now look at the formation of precipitation, soil, temperature and the contrasting habits and other factors.

First of all, the rainfall depends on China continental climate and the consequent seasonal stream. In short, Asia Pacific and West Block temperature, current temperature becomes fast, winter in the mainland over the dry air often flows southeast to the surface of the water, and thus little precipitation. On the contrary, hot summer air, block up, the sea is full of moisture in summer season wind suction to the inland and North, the precipitation is mainly in the summer. This unit from the south of the summer monsoon over Southern China first mountain, there are a lot of rain, the rainfall is relatively stable, the rainfall changes between the two but is about 15%. North China as far from the sea, less rainfall, and the change of 10 years and years rainfall of up to 30 %. Since the average rainfall in the North China Plain are 20-25 inches, equivalent to America large long suffering from dry and sandstorm area rainfall, to maintain the growth of crops, even in the best years are not very abundance. Years and years between this change in rainfall is big, is a very serious problem. Water supply for North China in a normal year, only enough to keep, and periodic lack of rain is prone to drought, famine. From the source, take advantage of Southern China.

But the soil in Southern China by contrast, poor, because there have been water seeps through the warm land, the mineral nutrients essential for plant growth by melt away. Infiltration water soil is a relatively long not good crops, this can only rely on the constant rain from the mountains to the new sediment below is part of the compensation of land. Even so, Southern China's population center is also only along the Yangtze River alluvial plain or delta, such as Shanghai or Guangzhou surrounding areas. On the other hand, the North China soil due to water shortage, not affected by the infiltration and still retain the mineral nutrient rich. In fact, sometimes the evaporation of water to salt to the soil surface, and there is no rain to wash it (as in Mongolia), so in the soil surface will form a layer of salt crust instead of farming.

The temperature on the maintenance of North China soil also plays a role, because of the cold, winter (like American Midwest winter), the growing season was only half of plants. In the southern China, perennial planting crops, rice can receive two or three quarter. It is easy to forget, the latitude of Shanghai and New Orleans and Suez are the same. And the latitude of Guangzhou and Havana and Calcutta are the same, has entered the tropical area. This explains why most Chinese, living in Southern China economic area is rich in rice. Rice requires people to vote more water and labor, but the yield is more than twice as high for wheat. Thus, rainfall, soil, temperature and these factors generally tend to balance, soil is very fertile North China in water is sufficient, but the phenomenon of water is very serious, but in winter it is too cold; Southern China is not a shortage of water, climate condition is good, but generally poor soil. In these two cases, natural resources is complemented by people unremitting efforts, and the use of human feces but is a form of the more prominent. If there is no enough manure or fertilizer in soil is back, Chinese is not an area support it so many of today's population. See Chinese city from the air, they are surrounded by a ring of dense green crops, and to color shallow gradually, this phenomenon is not accidental. Each city center supply around the market garden fertilizer.

From the distribution of the population, can be seen Chinese population is concentrated in four areas, these areas accounted for only a small part of the total area of the country. The first area is the North China Plain; second is in the Western Sichuan plain surrounded by mountains; third is from Wuhan to Shanghai, the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, including Hankou to Hunan rice Xiang Nan; fourth is the southern Guangzhou delta. The early Western tourists, from the perspective of dialect differences and size, the China compared to europe. For example, China along the Yangtze River in three areas of West Sichuan Province Wuhan --, North and south of Hunan, Hubei two provinces, as well as the lower reaches of the Yangtze River Delta -- the area with German phase collapse, and each area's population more than germany.

Southern China's commercial and transportation by waterway, modern city -- Guangzhou, Shanghai, Wuhan and Tianjin -- are springing up in the maritime trade with inland waterway transport business place of meeting. But China foreign trade has always been great expectations of foreign frustration. China from north to south of latitude, the equivalent from Canada to Cuba, maintained a majority of provide for oneself of the subcontinent characteristics. George contemporaries Washington's great emperor, in the famous edict by the king George Sans said, "Chinese country Weiyuan is, the guests, all sorts of precious things ladder boat Bi Ji, Nothing is too strange...... No more need to our country for objects."

Although China class soil widely sac throughout the scene and differ in thousands of ways, but this time, always maintain a political entity, while Europe has failed to do this, this is be not at all surprising, because maintaining the whole China together with the way of life, than our western more ingrained, and since ancient times until now, can be said to be more long.

Chinese origin

1929 Zhoukoudian in Beijing near a big cave, discovered a Beijing man's skull, create a great sensation. This is very significant in archaeology, because later yielded approximately fragments of 4O human skull, as well as evidence of tools and animal bones, human use of fire at the time of. All of these are found in the same place, is very unusual. Maybe in 500000 or 4O million years ago the people of Beijing, is one of human ancestors, his skull shallow low, lower frontal retraction volume, but considerable skull. In 1964, Xi'an south of Lantian found a more primitive ape man skull. The people's Republic of china archaeology revolution, has found out a lot of wide distribution of the upper Paleolithic sites, the skull and other relics.

At the same time, since 1949 also found the ruins of thousands of Neolithic, the great work, has been completely revised China prehistory. According to K · C · Zhang made the conclusion, the new findings show that, in the south of the Yellow River Hequ, between the highlands and lowlands forest swamp, began to have a settled agricultural society. For example, around 4000 BC, Xi'an on the outskirts of the Banpo villagers Lai Xiaomi for a living, supplemented by hunting and fishing, they use silk and ramie fabrics made of rammed earth building, indoor floor and wall (a wooden frame will be compacted layer). Their breeding pig dog as the main livestock, the grain in the jar, which was decorated with fish, animal and plant patterns, as well as some apparently Chinese text formerly symbols. But, in addition to the North China pottery culture, area in southeast coastal, Taiwan and the Yangtze River downstream of those long rice, also found that the contemporary cultural sites.

From the painted pottery culture far place, have been found in the shallow shiny black layer site, area is more extensive, distributed in the North China, the Yangtze River Basin and Southeast coast. This shows that the Neolithic agriculture area expanded, including many small regional range of cultural relics. Thus, China Neolithic culture seems to be following the Paleolithic age in central location, some developed, so that the old theory some Western archaeologists, has now become obsolete theories, because of the theory that the prehistoric culture Chinese is "into the culture", characterized with and through Central Asia Middle East culture. He Bingdi listed from the cultural contributions of East Asia: wheat and barley, horse drawn carts, pottery and some decorative patterns, all of which seem to be 2000 BC at the end of the year from the west, but it is China society already setting. On the bronze smelting operation, general mentioned influence from the south, as early as 3000 BC bronze found in Thailand (and in the Near East, but also for thousands of years earlier). But want to in the near each separate and different prehistoric culture, find out the early exchanges where extensive culture is to illustrate the "diffusion" this problem, now there are about. Every kinds of main culture is the natural local achievements, but is not isolated.

In terms of ethnicity, Chinese with single easily misleading, and this is untenable in the anthropology of. Northern and Central Asian peoples, who continue to enter the China land, sometimes to rule, though they never occupy advantage, enough to overcome China culture. The Great Wall to the north of the dry grassland, once the habitat of the nomadic invaders, they never can replace China populated agricultural population, but only the ethnic diversity. Therefore, the so-called Mongolia family is composed of many mixed blood, the flat nose and nose, black hair and red hair, beard and no feature, all things are, but also, such as Mongolia fold this so-called common feature is not universal.

The harmony between human and nature

No matter what part of civilization -- ethnic or cultural characteristics -- as long as they are incorporated into China, with China characteristic way of life, by land and by way of feeding, constraints and restrictions. Only cite as an example, the people of North China from the Neolithic age, is in the northwest of Chinese thickness up to 150 feet or more, an area of about 10 fine loess layer million square miles, the wind transported into, dig cave homes built. Loess along the longitudinal crack properties, suitable for the excavation of the cave. There are still hundreds of thousands of people living in the Loess cliffs near mining cave. They are warm in winter and cool in summer, safe and reliable, but I'm afraid earthquake.

China northwest loess seems never to have growth through the forest. Those who have forest areas, Chinese also like early other ethnic and modern America pioneers, the forest. Soil erosion caused by several centuries, have changed their nation. This erosion is still a big problem. The Yellow River hydraulic belt down the Loess in Shanxi province and the sea, between the alluvial plain of North China, this process is still in progress. Anyone who watched the the Yellow River that curry color turbid, be a trend which cannot be halted surge in levee, higher ground 20 feet through the 30 miles from the sea in densely populated plains; if who recognize this vast Yellow turbidity in continuously deposited its sediment, the bed is more and more higher than the surrounding countryside, until I do not know what one day because of the negligence or the god evil, it also rushed to the breaching of the dike anti become flooding plain; he would not be in this situation more vividly than feel people incapable of action in the face of nature scene.

Deforestation, soil erosion and flooding, people try to water. A performance of the people's Republic of China recently completed, is in this "evil river" the vast western basin planting trees and intercept tributaries. In earlier ages, China rulers every certain period, we must face the the Yellow River flood disaster in the North China Plain, an established fact, and deal with the urgent is the lack of scientific knowledge and methods. But in the early days, plain flood is no need to take it from the original swamp problems more severe; for drainage and irrigation and flood control and the use of water control technology with xing. Thus, many generations of labor has been spent on this land, make it become today this appearance, a levee protecting river, there are vertical and horizontal cross canals and roads, canals and wells for irrigation has a path, and occasionally remnant shade cemetery land divided, but all this is handed down from one generation of generation. The land of modern Chinese inherited, almost all used in the production of food. Chinese can't afford for food and. Who can use the land of 9 / l0 for the production of food, only about 2% are used for grazing livestock. In contrast, USA using land is only 4 / 10 for grain production, and almost half used for grazing.

The significance of the intensive and meticulous farming, dependent on the economic life of the rice can be seen most clearly. Rice is the pillar of the Yangtze River Basin and South Chinese throughout life. Rice in the first month usually grows in the nursery, and plant some grains in early. Grains after harvest, that is, in the dry land irrigation fertilization, tillage (the buffalo can supplement the human hoeing), in order to transplant rice seedlings. Transplanting still by hand, rows of rice bubbles in each rice Qi foot ankle deep in water, bent back step by step transplanting. In the rice fields of the subcontinent, this work has been carried out -- is surely the greatest cost on the physical world. In the rice weeded and mature, put off, the water harvesting, this work still by hand. If the water supply and manpower is not restricted, so, on a particular piece of land may be no other way than it can produce more food to. In this case, about the land from the economic value more than labor, in other words, the strong physical strength than farmland. China farmers cannot afford to put their labor for extensive cultivation, because to do so, the per unit area yield only half. As for mechanical or large-scale way to farming, they lack of land and capital. They have to rely on their own a labor intensive and meticulous farming, had to rely on manual, to raise a family. Today, the people's Republic of China to carry out the work of agricultural mechanization, agricultural population met serious problems how to find other employment opportunities.

In the small piece of land to spend a lot of manpower and human waste into fertilizer, has had its social impact of this fact, because it makes the population and land dense of intensive and meticulous farming depended on each other, each other are indispensable. The population intensive cultivation became necessary and provide conditions. After the economy once established, with its inertia to continue to develop, and build up its own people about the standard of value, put a lot of manpower or Brokeback labor as well, and keep labor-saving inventions heresy. China early advocate modern people, in their attempts to use the machine when, always conflict with manual labor vested interest, because in the short term, the machine seems to be competing in the same physical labor. So people will oppose the railway, said it took the driver and cooly jobs, and the invention is not important. This is just the ecology of the Chinese (they adapt to the natural environment impact) one of the many ways in which culture. The river flood plain life is always difficult, where people depend on nature, than to rely on their own initiative. "Life and death in the days Chinese" is an old saying. On the vast plain, tolerance to China farmers weather manipulation, rely on a sun and rain. They had to accept the water, drought, famine, disease and other natural disasters on from generation to generation. The life in the topographically diverse land on the fate of the Europeans in contrast. Formerly living in the Mediterranean region or continent Westerners, never too far away from the water, as long as they have the initiative spirit, insufficient total can rely on fishing and hunting to agriculture. In the western economic life, maritime trade since ancient times has played a direct role in. In order to facilitate trade and exploration and invention, is a typical means of Westerners struggle against nature, and must not resign oneself to one's fate, attempt nothing and accomplish nothing.

The East and the west to man and nature have different relations to this point, is one of the two kinds of culture difference. People, living in the center position in the western world, the nature of other things, as the color is not bright background material, or is their rivals. Thus Western religions believe that God is the same is like, the early Western painting is centered on the character of the. To understand the gap between the two is much, as long as we do not have the same relative Christian character Buddhism compare, or take a picture of the Song Dynasty landscape painting with a Italy paintings compare on the line. In the Song Dynasty landscape painting, small figure and Wei Ya is very small, while in Italy the ancient paintings, the natural scenery is just then add up the background.

But, strange to say, a Chinese and his fellow, always so crowded living in a piece of land, so that he became the most social idea person, so he always aware of the interaction between people, and the surrounding social customs; because of his entire life, few life in other people heard as circle.

The first chapter                            The old order

The second chapter China social essence

Mao Zedong called immortal, primarily because he tried to crush the ancient traditions of the ruling classes. He ills of privilege and the city bureaucracy with deep plain. This antipathy China sounded the alarm in the hearts of the people, touched the long existed since feelings; because the old China is a typical world above the layer class ruling minority majority.

Social structure

Since the new stone age, Chinese nobles rule has been used a lot of manpower in public buildings. As early as in the Shang Dynasty (about BC 1850 to 1100 BC), the capital of approximately rectangular, enclosed by a wall of rammed earth, around 4 miles long, up to 27 feet. After 3000, the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 years) in Nanjing and Beijing city wall is the soil compaction. The city is about 40 feet high, circumference were 23 miles and miles tall 21 , than the previous, and both sides of brick, but still is built with a lot of manpower. Of course, the Egyptian pyramids and the ancient empire and other miracles are a lot of human construction, but only in the Chinese still adhere to this approach. If we consider the social stratification recently excavated Shang city site in evidence, can know the history of China ruler, is how to arrange the human resources. The situation is legendary in the past, only know that some of the things mentioned in ancient literature. But since 1928-1937 discovered it last capital city near Anyang and 1950 years since the Zhengzhou near the earlier capital (both in the North China Plain, not far from the Yellow River in the Shang Dynasty), has become a specific historical dynasties. There is a palace and the upper class in the city residence, beam column structure is built in the soil on the stage, the basic architectural style with today Beijing's Forbidden City admired is similar in style. Royal multiply out the aristocracy by skilled craftsmen, serve, including bronze smelting operation is highly developed, there are pottery bricklayers and many other industries. Shang Dynasty bronze sophisticated peerless, is still one of the great artistic achievements of mankind. The kings have scholars in worship, these people know writing, by bone Bu accounted for the good future, (a little animal, heating the scapula to generate a crack, the crack interpreted as ancestral warned, and record the result) resulting in the famous "Bu basin bones", these are the most the early lead to discover things in Anyang. The nobility had superior life, take the horse drawn vehicle operational, by hunting for recreation, in sacrificial rites, also recorded chamber and craftsmen for its service, and support from around the village of farmers, who lived in the half above the ground pit. This is divided into many layers of society. The rulers of the ancestors is a complete religious ceremony etiquette. Deep gems and many sacrificial animal and human in the ground floor of the Royal tomb. K · C · Zhang said, "these burial objects most vividly illustrates, in a divided into class society, a member of the low class and sometimes as a victim, the victim may be held a religious ceremony."

 

Therefore, since ancient times, there are two China: one is engaged in agriculture for the huge population of peasants in the countryside society, where each forest surrounded villages and farms, always occupy the land, does not have what change; on the other hand is the flow of the city and town, there lived a landlord, scholars, businessmen and officials -- the haves and the powerful family. There is no eternal social hierarchy, so some are rising from the status of peasant opportunity. However, Chinese is still a nation of farmers, there are 4/5 people living on the land they farm. So the main classification society is the city and countryside, is more fixed in the land of the 80 % population, and 10 % to the division between the 15% upper class population flow. But this distinction is still today China political stage, so that national sovereignty from the hands of a few people to spread to most people. To understand 1949 years after Chairman Mao faced the problem, we must understand Chinese lasted almost until old age had been.

Farmer: family and relatives. Even today, people still Chinese most farmers cultivated land, mainly live in the countryside, lived in a brown adobe, bamboo or brush lime fence or sometimes into a stone house, with mud or stone floors, windows without glass paper. Their meagre material income at least half, sometimes up to 3 or 3 2 / / 4 for food. The other aspects of life, including rent, heating, lighting, clothing and any possible to enjoy the luxury goods, must be in the rest of the not worth mentioning. Yet they still lack adequate housing area. In the residential, usually three accounted for four of the cubicle. Sometimes a two or three generations of people of all ages and both sexes are sleeping in the same bed. No what meat dishes, like iron that ordinary things are rarely used equipment. Most of the work is still a human and not by the machine to do. In this work, tied to the land of the living environment, be placed in jeopardy by malnutrition and disease caused by the survival of the state, until recently the estimation China the average life span of a child, like in India is slightly higher than that of 26 years old. A man's life is sufficient compared with other production factors, so it is not worth.

On a higher level of material life of Americans, amazed him is Chinese farmers in such poor living conditions, was able to maintain a highly civilized life. The answer lies in their social customs, these customs so that every household staff, in accordance with the ingrained behavior criterion through all stages of life and change. These customs and norms of behavior, is always the world's oldest and most solid social phenomenon. China is a bastion of the family system, and thus draw strength and stained with inert.

China family is a self-contained world, is a miniature of the nation. Once upon a time, the social unit is the family rather than the individual, the family is responsible for the local political life of components. To instill in the family life of filial piety and obedience, is to train a person to the rulers and submissive state after the regime's training base.

Family culture of filial, make it grow up to be a loyal, if we look at the traditional family authority to exercise the way, we can understand the role that family. Father is the supreme dictator, control and dispose of all property and family income, have a decisive voice on the arrangements for their children's marriage. Children have the love, respect and fear intertwined feelings about their father, this kind of emotion is more due to the elderly and deepen reverence. Old growth in wisdom, to make up for the decline of his energy and more. As long as the parents alive and mind is clear, he had every reason to dominate everything in the home. The law permits his oath to sell, or even executed unfilial son. In fact, according to customs and nature, China parents nature is especially fond of small children, as members of the family of children, they are responsible for the love of a loving father. However, if the parents to raging Cheng Wei, laws and customs are not stopping them. The old family with racing together bridle to bridle Long Ling young of this phenomenon is think that women are inferior to men. The former Chinese girls than boys to more easily by the tragedy of infanticide. Women's marriage of course should be arranged by the parents, not by love. Trembling with fear of the bride immediately become under the mercy of her daughter-in-law. In more than a well-off family, she can also see the husband to marry a second wife or concubine, especially if she has no birth boy. She will be the husband abandoned for various reasons. Her husband died, she cannot easily be remarried. All this reflects the women have no independent economic status of the facts. Her work is the household and person, does not bring her what income. Rural women are illiterate. They have little or no property. Until the beginning of this century over several years, their subjection by showing the bad habits of foot binding, and deepen the bad habits. The girl from 5 years old to 15 years old, with a cloth tightly wound and prevent the normal development of the feet, the feet were incompetent bad habits seem to be at the beginning of the 10 century b.c.. This form of "lotus feet", the inside of the foot arch bone is broken, the toe hallux beyond are bent in the soles of the feet, which means that hundreds of millions of young women in the disaster, but is thought to give a man to beauty and sexy. A girl in his childhood and the development period, had to endure the pain in the foot, to win a good son-in-law. As for the daily care of the feet, feet, cut your toenails, maintain the blood circulation, these are the purdah affair, because she usually end is tightly wrapped feet, do not let them see. Finally, when her husband saw the tiny feet, they really become can cause sexual thing -- this is an invention of the Chinese! In daily life, the woman on the heel feet trembling move, walk with difficulty, also played a role in preventing women dare to go out.

Social customs imposed on women's low status, in Chinese this status conscious society, is only a hierarchical representation of. It reflected the social family discipline and view of the world. From a philosophical perspective, China ancient think that the world is the Yin and Yang of the two interact and complement each other factors. Yin is female, dark, attribute all weak and passive. Yang is the attribute of all male, bright, strong and active. Both are necessary and complement each other, but one of them belongs to natural from the other party. Based on this thought, generation China male ethics have masters make women must follow the three obediences and the four virtues like behavior criterion. These principles so that the girl was yielding to the boy, and the woman from her husband, from its parent. Chinese is not a strong woman, but they are usually equivocate, rather than a direct issue orders left and right to control the family.

The famous "provisions of the family status is emphasized by the three cardinal guides"; namely, Jun Chen Gang (subject to be loyal to the monarch), father to son (son to obey their parents), husband and wife (husband wife to chastity, and are not subject to this constraint). On an equal Westerners, the cracks of this doctrine, is the relationship between the three there are two types of relationship within the family, and the three is the relationship between the superior. As for the relationship between mother and child, the mother often allowed. Life in the west, but in Chinese this point in theory is not emphasized, though in real life the nature is important. In a big family, every child born in a hierarchical relationship, he has a brother, sister, aunt, aunt, aunt, aunt, uncle, uncle, uncle, uncle, aunt, cousin, various tables and various father-in-law, mother-in-law, sister, grandfather and grandmother, and aunt dear dear hall, the name many, non Westerners can certainly remember. These kinship than Western relations between nominal clear, fine, but also with other status which is not right and obligation. For example, the eldest son, one cannot fail to recognise the Confucian on his family obligations and more important than the brother and sister to teach.

Familiar and accustomed to the family system Chinese in other institutions, including the officials the hierarchy of the government agencies, are happy to accept similar status hierarchy system. The German sociologist Marx Webb put Chinese described as "family structure type country". The system (and which we decided by the contractual relationship of the individual business instead) is one of the advantages, one automatically recognize him at his family or social status. He has a sense of security, because he knows that, if he fulfilled his duties assigned to that part, he can count on the other members of this system in turn to him to perform duties. We see the overseas Chinese, due to the hierarchical organization of their activities to cope with the new environment and strengthen the power of.

In a peasant family, individual members of the life cycle, seasonal cycle with intensive and meticulous farming closely intertwined. Life and death with the crops planting and harvesting of melody harmony. It is still Chinese social foundation of rural, is composed of a family unit; village, home and personal according to season's crop melody, expanded by birth, marriage, death theme activities.

From a social point of view, the village Chinese until recently, mainly according to the family together, then part of the same area of neighborhood social. The village is usually composed of a group of families and the family unit (each lineage), their generations, living there permanently, by cultivating some ancestral land for a living. Each farm is the unit of society, and is the economic unit. Its members by farming family owned land life, and gain social status according to their family members.

Chinese family is a patriarchal, parental status according to male system handed down from father to son. ' The man in the home, women marry him home, the way of life with westerners as behoove in different ways. Until recently, China young men and women choose each other, not as a life partner, not after the joint establishment of a separate family, but her father and husband's family, assume the maintenance responsibility to the family, marriage life in the family life, the way in the modern Americans will be unbearable. Power system China historical family firm, has made the system become the object of modern revolution. A new spirit of loyalty to the country is loyal to the party has launched an attack on the family doctrine, but do not always work. China since the first emperor rule all the land, they abolished primogeniture (in this system, the eldest son inherited his father's fortune alone, small son elsewhere to survive). The significance of this system to change, as long as such with the British, China day countries comparison, we can see. In Britain or Japan, not the father's property the younger son had the opportunity to serve as the government, business and overseas control area staff. The eldest son of single inheritance system was abolished, have had a land equally among all the son system. The eldest son have only certain ceremonial duties, thus realize his special status, can also sometimes points to some industry. Estate constantly into small pieces, often family owned estate happen interrupt, prevent the Aga expand the land privilege, and make the rural subsistence. Each of the primary responsibility of married couples is the birth of a boy to carry on the family line, however, if more than one son, it might mean life is poor.

With the average person rumor saying the opposite, ordinary farmers and no large family. The shortage of land, and the disease and hunger, limiting the number of each household may survive. A few married sons and many grandchildren female lived in a courtyard, which is often considered a typical family China, but this seems to be the only exception to ideal, rich family can enjoy a luxury. The farm is limited to four or five or six people, to the land are the result often contain the industry and the accumulation of savings, so ordinary farmers rarely have the opportunity to climb to the upper society. The farmers are tied to their land, a bigger reason is that their number is too much, but not how the laws and customs of the limit. However, China farmers' life, described in the ancient folklore and folk culture etiquette and event is rich and colorful. Under normal circumstances, farmer life is not limited in a village, but in the formation of a large number of a market area in the village.

Fair society. This pattern can be seen from the plane -- fair society is the cellular structure, with a ring of satellites around the village every town. The old China village is a bee nest, composed of these areas is provide for oneself. If we follow the ideal model of William described by Skinner to imagine, every cell are in a city as the center of the town, which radiate out some path (sometimes waterway), leading to the formation of the first circle about six villages, and then continue to extend to about formed by 12 villages the second circle. In the 18 or so villages, each village about 75 of farm households, on average there are five -- two couples, may have two children, plus a grandparent. All these villages and towns are not more than 2 mile and a half, pick the pole, pushing wheelbarrow, or catch a donkey (or a ship on board the ship in the water only), can be in a day easily go back and forth. The village of farmers, the town treasurer, artisans, the landlord, the temple monks and others, to form an approximately 15000 households or 7500 people in society. The town's market is held on a regular basis -- for example in the first, fourth and seventh days per 10 day -- so, merchants can often go to the market, but also to a central marketplace, as well as some bazaar 5 miles the next town, there is also a regular -- for example, every 10 days in the two, five, eight, or three, six, nine market day. In this kind of market cycle life melody, each household may have one every three days to go to the town, some products may sell some products or buy elsewhere, but in any case have to meet friends in the teahouse, the temple or the road. He can catch up with the l000 market in 10 years.

Thus, although the village itself cannot provide for oneself, the big fair society is not only an economic unit, but also a social world. Marriage is usually set by the town's matchmaker. People celebrate the holiday in the town, secret societies, there may be held in the meeting, come from the village people are still there to meet with a representative of the ruling class -- rent accountant and tax collectors. Today the old market society has become the natural Al Qaeda people's Commune and production brigade, as the village has been organized into the production team, to complete the task that pay the agricultural tax.

Early China is an "Oriental" society

In the early European scholars of the Asian people power a wide range of privileges called "Oriental despotism", this is the same western laws and private ownership system extreme contrast. Of course, the ancient China with Egypt and Mesopotamia is the same time, it can also be compared with Mo Mughal people under the rule of India and Persia in the early modern times. In those places, European tourists see is poor people and rich autocratic ruler, who claim they have the land and the people of all ethnic groups. So European writer would create a "Oriental society" image, and this image, as Laurence collard said, "only exists in the minds of all these thinkers, other places where there is no", however, it still helps Marx form a concept of his rarely used by people: the "Asian mode of production". For the sake of convenience, we need only point, the traditional Chinese as a basically and nearer ages and different social "Oriental society" with other ancient empire into a class. K · A · Weitefugeer even before the Kolumb Americas Inca, Aztec and Mayan empire are included in this category. According to his analysis, they have some common characteristics: absolute monarchy, land - based economy, the widespread use of ideograms, and dominate the large-scale economic activity and strong bureaucracy, which has not established the legal existence of private enterprise. But in all the Empire, only to survive to the modern Chinese empire.

The evolution process of the Chinese, is sustained by contrast, in the eastern Mediterranean, Phoenicians and Greeks established city, were sailing activities, creation of alphabetic writing. Then, you can see the original rise in government scope, based on private property the dominant social class in Greece and Rome world and European medieval times. For example, the Greek city states is composed of a control class, he managed the government, by all means to prevent the emergence of independent bureaucracy. In the Greek based on private property society, taxes collected by the tax business, mining and customs cause packets to private business, the slaves were used as the calf, citizens take turns acting, very short term, so that any officials are not by his office was personal power. In the Rome Republic under the rule of the tax business, by collecting taxes and tariffs, is responsible for the construction of public buildings and private. In feudal Europe, expand the scope of private activity is certainly more attract sb.'s attention. In modern Greek philosophy, law and the medieval town of Rome found the individualism of the root, this is no accident.

On the contrary, the early Chinese government believes it should all controlling factors of agricultural production, land, labor and water. Rulers claimed that he has the right to deal with land and life to the people, that few people question, although rely on experience, people know to stimulate farmers, must let the private ownership of land, and that does not interfere with the collection of taxes. The government ordered the roll service system long-standing, so that those who still amazing feat of engineering such as the the Great Wall and the Grande Canale, have completed. Finally, in the north that in semi-arid area, one of the economic function of government is the management of water supply. To effectively carry out irrigation and flood control, there must be a central mechanism to control. The whole lot ditch and embankment must be in accordance with the overall planning to maintenance. To those used for reclamation, so it must be.

After the early Chinese government set up according to this pattern, also continue to develop the same administration principle. In order to transport and the construction and maintenance of the canal and road at the same time, the civil affairs officials also increased accordingly. To collect the surplus agricultural products and supervision of public works, paperwork and management personnel is essential. A large city population is concentrated in the imperial administration center, on the other hand, for the agricultural labor force also increased the density of. When the city of handicraft industry to stimulate the urban-rural communication, new business class has no chance to get rid of the government's overall control.

In the Early Imperial China many of this "Oriental" feature until recently. But modern scholars that China, not the early Empire the world centuries without any change of surviving examples. On the contrary.

The medieval period of prosperity. Especially since Japan scholars research results, we can see clearly, since the Tang to the song (8 to 13 during Chinese century), is the world's most advanced society. Material progress from a series of amazing invention the clue: printed books, abacus, money and credit instruments, powder, water pump, a canal lock, not Water Leakage cabin, and the navigation compass, not to mention the ceramics, lacquer, silk and cotton fabric of an earlier era of invention, as well as the painting in Song Dynasty, a work of art. These are a be full of vitality of the society in its history during the prosperous period of products, more advanced than europe. The Song Dynasty city culture reflect the agriculture, technology, business and technology progress, and also have the progress and the corresponding in philosophy and administrative method. The most important is the fact that the rise of the domestic and foreign private trade, this is indeed a "commercial revolution", making the government more dependent on trade tax. Jacques heat NAT put the capital Hangzhou portrayed as must have the largest city undoubtedly.

Historians on the life of peasants, there are different kinds of valuation, which depends on their problems, reference data, the research area are different. Some researchers in Tokyo to the peasants in the Song Dynasty as big landlords manor serfs in fact. Critics denounce them as Europe centered theory, and present the evidence, that is conducive to small private owners of land nature of rice farming (or permanent tenant farmers), because the paddy after plowing, planting, fertilizing, weeding after harvest, and farmers' skills, careful management and spends labor is proportional to. As Evelyn Rosicky has pointed out, "in rice cultivation, farming than in other cereal cultivation method on more important position." She found, to the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 ), parts of central, Southern China's agriculture to a large extent to meet the needs of the market for the purpose of: Although the land rental conditions and increased with the increase of population, the long-term contract but the tenants can generally conclude a fixed rent, which can promote their cause heart and improve productivity. Farmers can select the type of seed is most suitable for the local soil and climatic conditions. Except for double cropping rice, sugarcane, tobacco, they can (1500 years) or other economic crops, or to mobilize their family female labor force engaged in silk or cloth handicraft industry. Many agricultural production pattern and such to suit the needs of the market, is very complex, so the city businessmen could not through the capital investment to be controlled, although now began to have a factory processing system and some factory production, especially in the cotton textile industry. As Mark Elvin points out, Chinese city produced no new class as a business city households, the bourgeoisie, because the imperial regime structure "unified continue to exist, the independent development China city like European feudal political and military structure development, become impossible". Not a bourgeois Chinese produced, but a different new class.

The gentry class

In the past 1000, gentry increasingly dominate the Chinese life, so that some sociologists call Chinese for the gentry of the country, and even ordinary people talk about "literati" also regard them as a class. But you don't so reminiscent of her lovely England landlord and gentry, that to eat steak and fox entertainment time english. Because in the China this aspect, "gentry" is a technical term, it has two main layers of meaning, and have an inherent meaning is not clear. This need special explanation.

First of all, the non Marx nationalists generally agree, gentry is not only a feudal landlord class, because China society did not form any known as the feudal system, unless it is possible in the 221 BC Qin Shihuang unified China (. -- before the translator). "Feudal" this word may still be a bad word, but the Western term used to Chinese, is of little value. For example, the word is used the feudalism of medieval Europe and Japan, the main characteristics is the same land is included. Medieval serfs is tied to the land, he can't leave can not sell land, and Chinese farmers both in law and in fact are free to sell or buy land (if he had enough money). His servitude is the result of pressure variety of environment, legal system and not by a similar feudal Europe produced. It also does not rely on an occupation of the samurai class to maintain. Avoid using the word to describe the Chinese feudal peasant life situation, , never say their life does not suffer so much. However, if the term feudalism to maintain its originally used for the correct meaning, the European system and other systems. Then, the general situation in the China under, the word is not much significance.

China gentry only by the double meaning of economy and politics to understand, because they are related to property and office conditions. According to tradition Chinese, narrow the gentry status confined to those usually pass the exam (sometimes by recommend or donate money to buy) achieved fame personal. This definition is good is concrete, and even can be used to indicate the quantity -- this narrow gentry is ranked officer list, with imperial fame status, and does not depend on their economic status, especially not depends on whether the possession of land, because it is very difficult from the historical records to determine the number of. But, according to He Bingdi's opinion, the Qing Dynasty million have junior fame were only slightly higher than the civilian "low-level gentry", and those after several years of efforts, in the provincial capital Beijing through strict examination or three times a week cut a striking figure of a few elite, before the formation of powerful "upper gentry". As individual gentry are public officials, in charge of political and administrative affairs. But they are also in the family relationship, family relationship and rely on to maintain their livelihood. Many of these political -- economic duality has make the writer to gentry word to a broader definition, see it as a group of family, which is not only the individual fame were. The narrow and broad definition of the two, the reader must remember.

The family lives in the city, but not in the countryside. They constitute the estate based family class, between officials and businessmen to easily change between bound by farmers on the land mass and a layer of politics and business. They are local celebrities, some job execution and lower farmers, other positions with the top officials of relevant.

Farmers in the eyes of the public, including the big landlords and gentry, it is the economic base of the ruling class. They have a lot of courtyard inside walls of the compound, hired servant, and storage of grain supplies and anti-theft devices, is the most powerful in the old town hall. The famous "big house which is Chinese novels and western word Chinese fiction." The local gentry is the ruling class, customary rights and statutory rights they manipulate a set of land use. These rights are usually abnormal kinds of names and not complex, so give them clear does not have management can not be. Different ownership of subsoil and topsoil, every kind of tenancy relationship, loan, mortgage, usually pay and the obligations of the parties, all of these form a very perplexing relationship in local society, so that many farmers do not know their own what is not a small landlords. Generally speaking, farmers lost their land ownership, are more likely to become tenants, thus less into the fields of products, and not become become destitute and homeless homeless. Reflected increasing farmers' poverty is sometimes in the village without labor, but the main signs are increasing peasants' land rent.

The problem of poverty in rural areas of Chinese there are two schools, a school emphasizes the ruling class through the exploitation of the peasants' land rent, as well as other blackmail and impose exactions on usury, which results in the distribution of income inequality. The landlord class exploitation perspective while with Marx theory, has now become the old Chinese description of an unalterable statement. Another group such as Ramon Meyers pointed out, it is "compromise"; he emphasizes the old China agricultural productivity is low for many reasons: each accounted for two acres of land is too small; but even these tiny plots of land is used properly; "farmers' insufficient funds, contact opportunities for Technology Co. almost powerless to control; natural; the original mode of transport increases listed product cost". Advocates of this view point to the fact that people, most of China farmers own their own land, some are "semi tenant, and only about a 1 / 4 or 1/5 is pure tenant, the landlord exploitation of non general law Dian about, and general lack of funds and technology to farmers (relative to the workforce), is a the problem of small.

We do not intend to make a final judgment, but can present a rule; and all agricultural production factors together, social status and class privilege must also play a role in the rural areas, so that any interpretation must be social, historical and economic explanation. For example, in all agricultural production, funds on the seasonal demand allowed usurious loan, the loan interest rate as the kinds of crops and, up to a two per cent per month. Because capital is accumulated from the surplus of agriculture, the landlord is usually a moneylender. Therefore the gentry family battle their social status, but also depend in part on the rights and resources. At the beginning of the 20 century, they still dominate in most provinces in remote rural areas.

The old China official gentry family donated to collect tax media. Similarly, gentry also act as a middleman to farmers, in the performance of their official oppression of the peasants task, also can reduce more official oppression. Local officials in dealing with fire, famine or early rebellions and minor criminal cases of numerous and public construction projects, have to rely on the help. They are the buffer class between the populace and the official.

The poor by his learning can become a gentleman of the narrow understanding, even if he has nothing to do with the gentry family. However, in most cases, with imperial fame people always with the landlord family relationship, and the latter is the total member exam achievement in most cases. Generally speaking, the gentry family is the pool, there is not an official and fame, there are characters in the officialdom. Large family is to train officials of the nursery, and was demoted or retire retired officials retreated by.

The gentry in each village to perform many important social responsibility. They are such as canals, dikes, dams, roads, bridges, ferries, irrigation and transportation facilities for fundraising and presided over the construction. They support the Confucian institutions and ethics one one rob group office and maintain school, shrine and the local Confucian Temple, publishing books, especially the local historical records and local chronicles, and give the populace distributing moral book and to persuade the world song. In normal times, they set the tone for public life. In times of turmoil, they organize and command of the militia of the defense forces. Day in and day out their informal arbitration disputes, make local without legal proceedings as often as any one American town. Gentry also founded the charity and the use of the managed funds relief country suffering; they are the official request to government donations, especially in war, flood and famine period. These contributions are very useful, so that most dynasties are selling the lowest rank to obtain funds, so that many people can not pass the exam and enjoys the fame. Although this approach corrupt examination system, can make the rich pay to enter the upper class society, and share the privileges, such as he can meet with officials from corporal punishment.

Gentry family leadership in local and management functions, can explain why the official efforts are not deep to Chinese underclass. Or to put it another way from its origin, the produce is used to fill the early bureaucratic government and Chinese Society (it is constantly expanding, non bureaucratic government's power to control) between the vacuum. Advocated by G W Skinner to the city the results of the study, found from the Han Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty 2000 years, local administrative institutions have each dynasty did not increase, and Chinese population increased by 5 times. In each dynasty heyday, grass-roots unit "county" number is: "Han Sui Tang Dynasty 1150, 1255, 1235, 1230 yuan 1115 , Song Dynasty, Ming Qing Dynasty 1385, 1360". While the total population of the empire is: "180 years 60000000, 875 years 80000000, 1190 110000000, 1585 200000000, 1850 425000000." Therefore, in the Han Dynasty, a county under the jurisdiction of 50000 people, and to the end of the Qing Dynasty had jurisdiction 300000. Skinner puts forward, if there are 8500 County Beijing to management, so the administrative work simply can not make. Chinese government did not put the county machinery is the number of difficult management level, but with the expansion of government itself, the consolidation of the County Center populated areas, and only set the new County in the remote area. In addition it also cut its local administrative functions. For example, in the Tang Dynasty, the government gave up on the official management of towns, generally stopped it to "strict control" business, and gradually no longer "formally ask the local". The generation and the rise of gentry and their local duties.

In this way, the imperial government is still a superstructure, not directly into the village, because it is based on the gentry. Many official local gentry formed a political empire under the rule of the bureaucracy, the officials with great mobility and surface does not depend on the local foundation way often arouse. In fact, any magistrate emperor appointed only get the local gentry can cooperate governance. To sum up, in 100 years ago has been more than a national 4 million population, formal emperor official less than 20000, with official gentry is about more than 1250000.

The family has been able to continue to dominate the farmers, not only on its own land, and because such a fact: among the main produce gentry will be selected for the official gentry class. The gentry was able to almost an academic, and based on the properties of China language.

Chinese text and literati

Writing Chinese text not only looks different from western languages, but also in its basic structure principle and West Asia and Europe of the phonetic writing is not the same. The Anglo Americans, although there are a lot of alphabetic writing so be rather baffling seems like Chinese, but in fact they are very similar with English. For example, Thailand children learn Thai in school children with America very similar, they learn the pronunciation, the tone with no other significant symbols together, that is to say the Chinese phonetic alphabet. In terms of its thought and learning, they can also be used English letters to learn (make some adjustments, so that they can express the Thai pronunciation), and then write down the words heard in daily life, to enrich their vocabulary and expression ability. The learning process is different Chinese children. He is learning the symbols are meaningful in shape, and these symbols like pictures, or like digital 5 did, it doesn't matter with pronunciation. This writing is pictographic is also has the symbolic characteristics, factors of the ideographic than factors table sound.

In the modern Chinese dictionary, containing more than 4 Chinese characters. However, in the lead rack newspaper printing house, about 7000 of Chinese characters will be enough, of which about 3000 are ordinary literate people really need to know. Since the year beginning until now, these Chinese characters form almost no what to change. Before the 30 , Chinese also still use a Latin and ancient Greek compared to writing, this text is very simple, usually must be read before I learned the meaning of the word, the pronunciation alone is not enough. This is also a factor in the Chinese until the 20 century still bound to the old model of Confucian. The smooth communication China Chinese hinder Chinese and foreign society, but the past foreigners learn Chinese even more difficult than the day.

In writing. Chinese characters was originally a picture or symbol. The ancient Chinese characters ⊙ (after writing day) represents the sun, (later months) represent the moon. The sun and the moon together into a clear, bright, clear meaning, rich luster. Wood of a tree, two wood forest, meaning wood, wood into the forest, said the clumps of trees. One or two, three these symbols must be two "one , three," to learn. □ said a paddock or "surrounded", while the square small said nozzle, or extended said a hole, a junction, a port, etc..

 

Chinese characters early in its development process, can not rely on the pictographic method is extended (such as the sun and the moon together Ming.). Then gradually adding acoustic factors. Results the most Chinese characters composed of other relatively simple Chinese characters, part of a combined word usually represents the basic meaning, the other part said the pronunciation of the words.

To the "East" of the word as an example, Beijing word plus tung (Hanyu Pinyin is Dong -- the translator). Because a Chinese characters read out is monosyllabic, and because Chinese phonemes quite small (only about 400 of the whole Chinese syllable different), so the Chinese homonyms are annoying. The word is like English in "soul" and "sole" and "all " and "awl". Chinese frozen "freeze" is read as tung , the house of "house" also read this sound. Chinese began writing a frozen "frozen" word, the representation of Oriental "East" word, symbol word plus a representative of ice in the next, forming a "frozen" word. In order to write of "building" word, they used by Oriental "East" word, symbol of wood by representative trees, forming "a" word.

This is a simple example. In fact, any part of the Chinese itself is simple. It is so difficult to learn, because there are so many things to remember, and there is so much meaning and metaphor. For example, when compiling a dictionary of the people to put tens of thousands of Chinese characters into the dictionary, because of the lack of phonetic alphabet, the best way they can take, is a list of 214 radicals, any one of which is sure each Chinese characters must contain. From the dictionary's point of view, these 214 radicals is equivalent to English in 26 letters, but check with not by the Chinese phonetic alphabet as clear, and more trouble.

Although Chinese characters bloated, write up is not easy, but in the modern, with number of document which records than any other text to. According to a moderate estimation, 1750 years ago. Chinese book than the rest of the world was the total number of printed text more. Part of the reason is Chinese already invented paper and printing, the invention after about 600 years to spread to europe.

To sum up, perhaps to explain why the Chinese almost become the ruling class of patents. It is in the nature of a social system, which is not only a social tool. The worship of Chinese, spend Months and years pass by. time to have a good grasp of even some part of the document, and Chinese literature itself is a universe of 1,000,000,000 universes, only through intense efforts to get hall room. One of the most important Chinese characters over a long period of time use in various occasions, accumulated as multilayer onion as the first meaning. We might as well make a simple analogy, if the word Roman Pater meaning to us today with wholly intact written form, perhaps with other fonts are combined together, it contains the "father" (father ), "patriotism" (patriotism), "patriarchal" (paternity) "(the Bible), the semantics" (patristics ), "property" (patrimony), "grace" (patronage) and so on. As for such a word specifies what kind of meaning, then look at the context to decide. This requires knowledge of ancient prose. Many scholars in order to familiar with the ancient, is exhausted efforts.

Chinese this book writing, and not every schoolchild in convenient tools for coping with life problems can easily pick up the use of. That in itself is a life. If the child has no time to continuous learning to write a composition, he just a life going to be successful in one's official career. Therefore, Chinese writing is not China farmers can take the truth and knowledge of the open door, but blocking the aggressive way, takes a real big effort to overcome it -- it is studying learning obstacles rather than power.

The scribes class. This class is produced from the master Chinese, is the official gentry family system and above with the following closely together. When scholars have fame and might have some official appointment, he can use the existing government agency to display his ability. However, he only in the hands of the official governing the classical scriptures in the road, was to become the official. These books content, is a part of things with the doctrine of Confucius and Mencius scholar studies in oral expression of the truth and etiquette used, while in the practical action is involved in interest and systematic extortion, money organized (this is the outstanding point bureaucratic class).

As for the failed to enter officialdom literati man, he can always in the family system the origin in another play. He holds the fame, this identity so that he can contact the official level, through the personal friendship, service he can represent the interests of the family and for the. Doing this task also needs to use the doctrine of Confucius and Mencius in both oral and written. So, no matter whether the scholar officials anchoret, always existing order with family and government closely together. His life depends on family and government, he is for both services in the actual action. As a good Lord, he will not physical labor, but also good business, from a young age by Bao Jia royalism training, there is no way out. The children on the gentry family life is guaranteed, can not be distracted, full time spent on studying hard. He in order to prepare for the examination and further career, usually must study 10 . To obtain the most senior official in Beijing, the same as a faculty member at the American University today people, average age was about 35 years old. However, the exam is a gamble, only from the wealthy family of the talented young man, before they can enter the examination room.

Risk and liquidity of official life to assume, in sharp contrast with the security and stability of the landed gentry. The examination system is the balance between the two. We believe that special attention in a private relationship, Chinese examination system is very fair and wide. When the system in the peak period of a dynasty effective, people do everything in its power to eliminate the affair. The candidates are locked in a small room, a long rows of thousands of small room like this in each province city accounts for a large piece of ground. On the paper there examinee number, and papers to review before the examiner in separately, all the conditions are very secure. In order to maintain the objective standard of reasonable in the selection of officials in the future work, of course, need to have the preventive measures. These measures demonstrate Chinese ruler is really needs to have true skill and genuine knowledge of the people to keep the administrative institutions. However, once the selfless system for the selection of the most outstanding talent, we can rely on personal as policy, they follow the personal character of the "moral principles", rather than focus on higher objective law "the spirit of law", this point of view is completely behoove.

With the social mobility of this fact and legend Chinese government, is still a question. All the examination system in order to get the most dynasties, are willing to take your breath, to spread the benefits of this system, that is as long as you have the ability, can destroy to senior officials. The western writers also have always thought China test is true democracy, the wise farmer organic will rise head and shoulders above others. But in fact this situation seems to be relatively rare. For the exam was necessary for studying hard for many years, is the ordinary peasant insurmountable obstacles. As for the villagers to raise funds to supply local farmers wit reading exam, to be able to play a role in inspiring stories. But this is not often the case. In all the way out of the ordinary farmers, cultivated land from new or opening a new business is difficult to obtain the development, and for most people, they can not rely on property income and savings into investment. The fact that Chinese lives and the lives of Americans be quite different, and the Americans about individualism and free enterprise in China land almost no understanding, and become aroused suspicion be slogan. In China circumstances, ordinary people to improve their position, only to walk this path communication official. In order to drilling bureaucracy or the periphery of financial management and behalf of bribery to official circles of the people, must depend on the personal friendship and personal allegiance to achieve goals. This road basically must pass the gentry, and can not avoid them.

So, the landlord, the literati and officials are part of the ruling class. Land and surplus agricultural product family, can let their son had leisure for a scholar. The familiar with the scriptures can pass the examination official. Oil-water extra officials can they get from the bureaucracy in the maintenance of good life and Tian to buy a house. This social structure is flexible, can be stored for a long time, and it is very stable.

Underdeveloped state capitalism and merchants

In Chinese history, a question Americans eager to answer is, why Chinese merchant class cannot break through the dependence on government, to create an independent entrepreneurial force?

First of all, China businessman's mental state and our classical economists praise western entrepreneurs believe that the state is not the same. According to the classical economists, the economic life of the people through the production to seek maximum benefits, from the increased products to obtain the market to profit. But according to China tradition, the economic life of the people the most well, not by increased production, but on increasing his available in has produced products in the share. He would like to rely on him more than his associates directly in the competition to get rich, rather than relying on the conquest of nature or more use of natural resources or the use of improved technology, to create new wealth. This is because from the very early, China economic performance for the maximum number of people work together for a small amount of natural resources, rather than to the development of new industries, and. In the innovation of enterprises, win the market for the new product impetus, as for the monopoly, the official made to market control force too large. The traditional approach China not create Pu cage better to capture more rats, but seek the mousetrap patent to the government.

The ideal gentleman China is high status was not required to the extent of production, they can enjoy life and engaged in special, elegant symbol of the fuling. The most respected is live leisurely people, not in the affairs busy in doing better than others. The leisure for the ideal case, until recently also can be seen in Chinese rural, farmers there in the top the emergence of a leisure class, even though their income is surprisingly low. Life easier farmers according to America standard is still poor, but they have a chance to think from a work in a person into a wear long gown and arty gentleman. The old China age long fingernails, is invented by people since ancient times to indicate that one of the most inexpensive signs the idle status.

Since ancient times, the office is the key to wealth and leisure, because officials have the best chance of increasing his share of existing products. The official position, has the right to mediate a dispute and take advantage of the. Specifically, an officer on behalf of the emperor's power, he can peasant workers, taxation, law enforcement, economic and social activities of managing people. From the local gentry China officials, often think of the landlord class style to their jobs. They pursued, are opportunists, rather than a career. The merchant is the official competition, because he has not engaged in agricultural production, but to play the market, one copy to get more from existing products. Theoretically speaking, reading an official who has put merchants as engaged in the production of parasites. In Chinese ancient, people did not think that businessmen use products from a to B what merit, therefore he was listed as one of the lower level of society. But in fact, the merchants' activities is the official control, his government was regarded as a small boy, bureaucratic class can use his activities, and he squeezed oil from them, for their own benefit or for the government. Like Elle, Balazs said, by the official supervision and to their tax to total business transactions. The main commodities such as ancient salt or as recent tea, silk, tobacco, salt and the match, is a government monopoly. This shows that the government above all economic privilege. So the government does not permit the emergence of a independent businessman stage, to violate the privilege.

On the other hand, Huawei always find a close interest in common, because any a pile big business, protect and support the government is essential. Any unilateral do not matter, only the cooperation of both sides can be shared in the profits. So the merchants, bankers, Nan Ke and every kind of business has become a subordinate to the bureaucratic class. As materials and money handling and manipulation of people, they not only from the business and the agriculture officials to help profit.

In fact, the merchant can through the purchase of land, donated much fame and intermarriage, be an easy job to join the gentry class. Chinese unlike Europe, no what foreign trade for business investment. While not as lucrative business, but it is safe and reliable, so it is always a big object of investment. The landlord and merchant class, is easier than independent commercial capitalists. Chinese guilds can strike or not in the form of cooperation of passive resistance and make great achievements, but still that businessman is from belongs to the officials. The organization's strength lies in the handicraft guild, the guild makes some handicraft artisan keep the monopoly position on its process and production rights. Similar to play a leading role in the early European Chamber of Commerce in business activities, in Chinese is particularly weak and feeble. As one of the main examples of Guangzhou is public, court officials gain extreme notoriety tool.

Chinese old financial system also provides another evidence. On behalf of the accumulation of capital deposit is usually invest in money on, because it can get more interest. Usurious interest rates low, may indicate that the urgency of seasonal demand farmers on the money, because he needs to borrow to tax and spend a period of crisis. Short term loans to farmers than long-term industrial loans at higher interest rates. Therefore, the driving force of deposit investment to industrial production in Chinese than in the USA as big.

Chinese economic system based on agriculture and this point, performance is limited in the range above. Rural credit is a not up, because farmers can do provide for oneself, but also on the short-term purchase nearby everywhere. Similarly, the government is usually the most dependent on physical and taxes paid to grain. For example, the capital of Beijing is to rely on the provinces via the Grande Canale to go to the supply of grain. In addition, the government also can not pay the discretionary shake existing wage. The old coins system itself is very complex, because that is the silver copper and bimetallism. The calculation of unit of silver (two) with different, with different industries and different government agencies. At the same time a city in general, may be twenty different versus unit, so each key commodities such as salt or cotton business, and pay some other regions the money, need to use different "currency". To make a coin to maintain a fixed value is not possible. Therefore rely on silver clumsy turnover, and when in use, each silver ingot must now balance weight and test quality. At the same time, has always been the government rarely inferior copper casting. Between the monetary unit of the resulting number and their exchange way, reflects the money manipulator Ling Jiayu industry investors, because the former can profit from the exchange of this complex, and the latter to put his money into the cause to the planned production. We conjecture, the poor efficiency of monetary system can tolerate, probably because it helps the ruling class on the subject of money playing tricks on them, but no much hindered, as the literati allow pictographic writing system, because it is difficult to learn, they can keep the position of semi monopoly. Anyway, the poor efficiency of monetary system show that there is a lax decentralized economic system, its business activities are mainly local trade. It is like a medieval europe.

In short, capitalism is not in China rise, because the control is never far from the gentry merchants and government agents and stand on one's own. In feudal Europe, the merchant class was developed in the town. Because of the ruling class in the country of large farms, towns of Europe to grow in the feudal system, without being absorbed into the feudal system. The people in these new towns have their own interest, and national king this new political authority to protect them, and then achieved independent status.

Chinese lack these conditions. The feudal system of European style had been abolished, the emperor and his officials cannot do without the local gentry, these circumstances make the businessman to other political forces to seek special protection was not found in addition to the established order. In addition Chinese gentry family had become the dominant class in the city, because the city is usually Chinese initially as an administrative center and developed. The important relationship between the gentry and officials to attract them to live in the city, there is a cultural center, is building a safe place wall, to guard against the thief or angry farmers. The best guarantee of gentry family is not only the land, but by the combination of field and official privilege. Home industry itself is not reliable, but the home was an official can give security. Therefore, gentry this above the peasant economy on the noble class feel home farm and was reliable, operation business is not reliable. Between the gentry and officials collude with each other, make sure that the businessman always controlled by them, make them your possessions, but don't let them build independent sector of the economy.

In the agricultural production conditions, as long as the press stand the government tax, the private enterprise can develop freely, but this is not the type of private capitalism. Farmers in its own land to more elaborate cultivation, bureaucracy can use tax, get more surplus products from them. According to the same principle, if the business product than capital, bureaucratic will from the side watching, not hesitate to begin the search. The ancient Chinese records appeared in many businessmen, but they had not a political class. The early emperor clearly they are not allowed to participate in the examination to enter the career. For rulers, commercial development is more important than to continue in charge of agricultural economy. They rely more on land tax instead of relying on business tax.

In the social structure of this copy down, the upper or the ruling class includes a number of slave class; (subclasses ) the landlords, gentry literati, officials, and businessmen, warlords and etc.. The composite upper class is the positive transfer every kind of China academic culture of. In this account for about 10 % of a small layer Chinese people, produce most of the literature and art, philosophy, ethics, produce higher as well as on the government's political thought, and developed a variety of laws, thus increasing the wealth. This high culture and social standards seepage down people people's mind, training them to obey authority.

The third chapter is the doctrine of Confucius and Mencius

Between Confucius and Marx two people are named after them two ideologies, less common, but between Confucianism and Marx Lenin, Mao Zedong thought although has the very big difference, there are a lot of similarities. However, the old China and people's Republic of China have attached importance to the ideological consciousness, so who do not know some Confucian tradition, he cannot understand Mao Zedong thought.

Read the Confucian classics is only superficially Western observers, would admire the agnostic to secular spirit, and the spirit of private relationship between due attention justified on ethical. From Confucianism as a philosophy of life which is a broad sense, western scholars generally believe that it advocates tolerance, peaceful master and compromise virtue; advocates a middle course; advocates old-fashioned and contentment; advocate the ancestral worship, the old man and a widely-read; but the most important is that a mild Humanism -- to the people rather than the God as the center of the universe.

All this should not deny. However, if this life view of Confucianism from the social and political point of view, it can be found: the young, or worship of ancient down now, pay attention to the existing authority instead of innovation, in fact has China social stability problems provides a great history. It is all conservative ideology system one of the most successful. Most of the two thousand years, the Confucian ideology has become the world one of the biggest countries in the main course of study. A separate set of considered derived from an ancient sage consistent system of thought, could become the theoretical basis for the legitimacy of government power in this century, this kind of phenomenon in the world any other place has never been.

Naturally, in the course of two thousand years, the large range of we called Confucianism has undergone many changes -- a recession and recovery period, there have been several reform movement, within the traditional ideology had a shift in emphasis and innovation. The faction differences range may only slightly inferior to the Christian many factions, but certainly with the latter to be compared. Therefore, the word means a lot of Confucianism, careful with up to.

As an individual behavior criterion, Confucianism tries to make everyone become a moral person, ready to according to the ideal reason to insist on virtue, against human error, especially against the tyrant. There are many exemplary conduct and nobility of character of the Confucian scholar officials was autocratic imperial feel irreconcilable hatred for sb. enemy. However, their reformation passion and power generated by faith, is to reaffirm and maintain traditional political form, and not change the basic premise of it. Confucian thought still remain in the Chinese politicians in mind, this is be not at all surprising. Confucian thought in the Warring States period, is to put a means that social order bring order out of chaos. It is a name of philosophy, so when the bureaucratic and authoritarian political popular all want to take it as a ready-made tool. Unified Chinese world being without attracting irresistible, the reason is very obvious.

When Jiang Jieshi is the rebel is held in Xi'an, in 1936 year Christmas was put back to Nanjing, the nation was to unprecedented joy. But after four days, he asked: "the resignation is dear general Rong machine, responsibility in teaching, but sincere not grams of synesthesia, Christian and distinct effect, to the ruin method Ge Ji....... Please Jun Fu Ming class will is to blame, punish severely to punish dereliction of duty, the exhausted. After this incident, but not as more countries."

Nine years after the war in the famous work "China destiny", Jiang Jieshi wrote: "the national salvation moral cultivation...... That is the ethics to restore our inherent expansion to China everbright. And the important items, for carrying forward our national rites in Shangyi, Ming Lian shame morality. This virtue, the moral foundations of society the performance, and the moral foundations of society and to 'filial piety' as a fundamental."

In addition to the two exceptions, can cite many. These show that, until recent decades, Chinese remains a Confucianism smell is very strong countries. The first example is concerned, who did not want to Chiang resign, he doesn't intend to do that, so he asks is trickier to be rejected. The second example, in suffered from Japanese aggression, blockade and inflation, who also did not expect to rely on moral character to save Chinese, Jiang himself did not think so. But in these two cases, it sketches out the traditional the doctrine of Confucius and Mencius jiang.

Before Jiang Jieshi, China numerous leaders in the adversary or repel invaders, a Confucius words, while the foreign invaders such as Japanese, in their attempts to grab Chinese period, but also resort to hole st.. Today Beijing sing is another tune, but the horse a hairy orchestral music can still hear Confucius overtone. Because of the ideological awareness plays a major role in the Communist Party rule, consider Chinese past ideology is particularly interesting.

Confucian principles

Kong Meng is still hidden in statecraft in China political life under the surface, is formulated in BC. Over the next few years although he made extensive modifications, but until recently touched its fundamental. The last surviving traces can still be found everywhere.

First of all, from the Chinese there until the beginning of the history of the third Century BC, society is divided into distinct classes, one side is the officials and nobles, the other side is the ordinary people. It was pointed out, from the business site unearthed things can prove this point. The social difference between the ancient ruling class and the civilians, produced a special type of aristocratic tradition, it is the Confucian preserved, has been spread today. Earlier aristocracy became literati, Confucianism became their ideology.

Confucius advocated the formation of the aristocracy of intellect than the future, hereditary aristocracy of Europe, closer to the original Greek ideas about noble: "to the best state." In the Warring States period, the empire is not unified, doctrines prevail, China thinkers major schools are opposed to privilege the hereditary principle of the nobility was quoted, and that human being is equal at birth: good in nature, and has an inherent morality -- with Donald Munroe's words, there is a the so-called "can make the assessment of intelligence." This means that, one can achieve perfection. He can pass education, especially through his own inner self-cultivation kungfu, moving in the right direction, but he also can emulate those better than oneself, learning other people's strengths and achieve the purpose of. In the process of his own efforts to do good, he can be affected by the sages and outstanding character models, because they've been able to put the correct behavior in all considered first. The ancient Chinese stressed that people can choose and follow what is good by education, the viewpoint that continues to this day. It is now still encourages the government to implement moral education.

The Wei state. The Confucian thought of course not from Confucius (551- BC 479 BC) began. For example, interesting "mandate of heaven" view can be traced back to the early Zhou Dynasty (about 1027- BC 770 BC). According to "the book" contained, the Shang Dynasty not generation from the ruler is a tyrant, but people can not overthrow the tyrant, so God asked Yu Zhou to destroy, sealing, and replace sb. The ancient thought after the play, become the famous "has the right to revolt", this is the last resort of people oppose autocratic government. It emphasizes the rulers must be virtuous, which he kept for ethics rule. If it do evil, that a violation of destiny. God will take back the "mandate of heaven", people have reason to overthrow the dynasty, as long as they have the power to do so. Therefore, any successful rebellion is due, and the new rulers by virtue of his victory in this fact, become be right and proper. "Day - people set." Chinese scholars condemn bad government, rebels on the basis of such opinions revolt. It has also strengthened the belief, that rulers should consult a person with breadth of vision, in order to ensure he is positive.

In the competition Confucius princes hegemony, he and philosophers do lobbying princes, the teacher work to persuade them to do good, and got the status bottom. Confucius is an aristocrat, he set the school taught at home, teaching and dissemination of moral principle and way about behavior. He taught in the upper class about there being. He takes one of the central principles set of guidelines, national ceremony and etiquette to the ancestors and the five cardinal relationships in the proper behavior is "move by name" (Li). The gentleman from Li, and Li's teachings is written in the ancient book. It must be pointed out, the rules guiding the scholar bureaucrat behavior does not apply to the original, this behavior is to use punishment instead of ethical principles to restrict.

The complex system by using this set of rules is the secret, the masterpiece, and as mentioned before, it comes to Chinese and nature. This relationship is very early manifestations of primitive animism, that land, wind and water spirit actively involved in human affairs. This thought in Chinese of Feng Shui practice still prevails, it requires the buildings must be built in suitable natural environment. For example, the temple usually south, on the back of a mountain as a barrier, a flow of water near. Has a close relationship with its reasonable form the phenomenon between man and nature in the idea, cause people to think that human behavior is reflected in the idea of natural phenomena. In other words, that person is a very important part of the natural order, so that human behavior is not the time, will bring the whole nature was in chaos. So the behavior of people must be coordinated with the invisible forces of nature, or evil will come one after another. This is the Confucian emphasis on theoretical basis must be a king, because the king of Confucian thought is between man and nature. He is the son of heaven two is located under heaven and people. As long as he conform to day, did good deeds, he will be able to maintain harmony between man and nature in general. Therefore, that the scourge is for the king to have faults, this argument is logical. He can has been 下诏 crimes to admit it, such as Jiang Jieshi did. Also because of this, Confucian scholars became so important. Since he knows what kind of behavior is legitimate, that only he can give the king put forward proper recommendations for management of the world.

On the Confucian theory of "benevolent government" win the attention, this is any western theories cannot be compared to it, but the main point of the theory of benevolent government is "good behavior is moral" thought. Which holds about, it can give a person with moral status or prestige. The moral prestige and can give a person with over the people's forces. "Man of the wind, a small German grass"; wind on grass will be stiff. The correct behavior gives the rulers to power.

According to this point, Confucian scholars became part of a government in indispensable, they are eligible to maintain the government's moral, so as to keep the destiny. 221 BC unified the world Qin legalist, effective method of governing the country although the unfeeling, but lack of moral basis, and provided a basis for the idea of confucianism. In the annotation "ceremony" of the meaning, they are the experts, they explain the phenomena and the scourge of net language, what will be the consequences of the behaviour of the rulers, only to be denied or rejected according to the Scriptures, and they are experts familiar with the scriptures. This put them in a favorable position, to influence government policy. Conversely, when most imperial rulers rely mainly on religious authority in the world, the Confucian provides a rational and ethical basis for authority to exercise regime. This is a great invention of politics.

The early achievement of bureaucratic administrative organs. Besides, the above theory in practice there is a set of administrative skills associated with. The feudal system of ancient Chinese that administrative decentralization and to family based, followed by the imperial government to rule all the land is replaced, bureaucratic ruling class will have a play. When one of the seven Warring States (Qin) in 221 BC annexed the other six states, when it needs to authoritarian rule all the land, by means of violence, and the need for a totalitarian Philosophy (the so-called Legalist Philosophy). But when in 206 BC the Han Dynasty after the short-lived Qin Dynasty came to power, it has formed a set of less arbitrary application of politics and law. The emperor began to rely on a number of new administrative personnel, they presided over the public -- shoti dig canal project, walls, palaces and warehouse workers -- and pump sets, land tax levied. These administrative personnel to replace the feudal aristocracy, become the pillars of the imperial regime. They absorb a lot of methods of Legalist school, mixed into a new king of confucianism. 2 century BC to the rulers of the early Han Dynasty firmly established certain principles. First, the state power is concentrated in the top of the emperor a person. In second, the emperor's power from a batch of his secretary represented him to exercise, the chancellor of the Exchequer in the most superior officials at different levels, their policy and responsible to the emperor. Third, this batch of bureaucratic concentrated in the capital huge palace, where emperor, the exercise of the right of appointment. The main task of the emperor is to choose the civilian officials, its focus is to maintain his authority and power. Therefore, very early has appointed a kinsman of the emperor, especially maternal relatives when leading practices. (matrilineal relatives who are entirely dependent on the grace of the emperor, and the relatives and the emperor, they are different from the paternal relatives, because those who may be with him for the throne inheritance.) Fourth, at the beginning of the Chinese emperor concluded a set of supervision system, then turned to the censor system, in this system, provincial officials supervised by a lower level officials, and the latter is the court alone sent, not responsible for their superior officer.

In this set of method and many other methods, the center problem emperor policy becomes the selection and a number of bureaucratic control problems. It is in this regard, the Confucian their strength is increased by some methods borrowed from the. Therefore, as H , G · g Lille points out, the ancient China at the forefront of a set of bureaucratic administration basic principles to stand in the world: the fixed under the jurisdiction of the court of justice, brought under the general use of power management, and these officials must report their achievement in define the term regularly. Over the past 2000 years, the area of bureaucracy is reflected in the "county" to build a wall of the administrative city.

For the selection of an official of the people, the Han Dynasty emperor funded school, and began to set up the system of examination. This practice continued to use, when the Tang Dynasty ( 618-907 years) the Renaissance of the imperial political structure, the examination system is firmly established, a broad road step career. During the next 1000 years, until 1905 years, the Royal sampling system to produce official history, orthodox thought them to completely is subject to official to establish their official post qualification, it is another kind of great political invention.

Confucian orthodoxy

Confucianism is handed down by the book, these books have formed judgments, the text hundreds of years to be explained, this is understandable. In this process, sometimes for release by the late text writing is regarded as the more ancient books, and some books earlier that important but forgotten. At the beginning of the Chinese classics have often referred to the "book of changes" (used for divination), "book", "the book of songs", "book of Rites", "spring and Autumn" (Confucius hometown of Lu, ie Shandong Chronicle) and. The philosopher Mencius (about BC 372 - 289 BC) the books until the Tang Dynasty did rise to the classics status. Then gradually integrated into the "thirteen classics", together with its commentaries, now has as many as one hundred and twenty volumes. In order to simplify the roll gap numerous the set, the Song Dynasty (907-1279 years) scholars selected the famous four books (Confucius "Analects of Confucius", "the doctrine of the mean" and "Mencius", "University"), the contents of a brief, so that any student can master.

The article four training to fatherhood government described as key pong home. Mencius of King Hui of Liang said: "the king such as Shi Renzheng to the people, province punishment, reducing tax revenue, deep easy mattress, strong in days of leisure to repair the filial piety to Buddha faithful, that his father and brother, in its long, can make the system quite to tart Qin Chuzhi armed might."

The official law while in the form of very reasonable, but also has its religious, a grand ceremony in Confucian Temple, spring Ding offering two Pang sages tablets and the respectful Ruyi. All these form a formal ceremony, it with the following people prevailed, with the emperor Jiao offering sacrifices to heaven and earth ceremony held together. Although this does not belong to the people of god same source said, but still does not lose its religious worship. We might as well call the national humanism service, its basic meaning is the moral force of trust can conquer the people, so that people in the wise benevolent King rule tends to stability. The Confucian doctrine of the full of ups and downs, as Rome Catholic doctrine, the most instructive, and shows how it is deep China heart. From three to sixth Century, when the central government in the Han Dynasty after the decline of Buddhism, almost cover the Confucian thought. But in the long history of the China second prosperous period, namely from seven to thirteenth Century in the Tang and Song Dynasties, the Confucian ideology up again, and was transformed into an unprecedented solid form. The government of Tang Dynasty Confucian revival, is China society in politics, administrative management, literature and art and thought in general part of the renaissance. From seventh Century to mid eighth Century of the Tang Dynasty emperor to the various aspects of extended their dominion, expansion to North Korea and Vietnam (then known as Annan), the settlement of nomadic tribes and the desert oasis in the far and middle asia. At the same time, the Tang Dynasty capital of Changan (present-day Xi'an) into nearly two million population of the world center city, from the Byzantine and countries of the Middle East business place.

Interestingly, in the early Tang Dynasty national strength and economic strength of be on the upgrade, the legal system and the examination system to be very good, the revival of the Confucian bureaucracy is very tolerant of foreign religion. The foreign visitors into every kind of medieval religions: Judaism, fifth Century called Nie Storrie sent heretical Christian (Jing Jiao), from Persia to Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism (Zoroastrianism). But when the middle of the eighth Century the first rebellion endanger the Tang Dynasty, its coffers and military control problem is becoming more and more distress, Chinese authorities apparently shaken confidence, all fully inclusive and equitable spirit also declined. The Tang Dynasty after the collapse of North sleep pretty Qiu constantly invasion, Song Dynasty failed to regain the international status. The end of Song Dynasty, the rulers of the people of all ethnic groups China grassland has been on the defensive. Handicraft production and domestic and foreign trade to make the government fiscal, but this advantage is offset by strength weak. The late Song Dynasty is a commercial country, it exports coins, silk and porcelain and Far East Asian countries, Indonesia, India and the input, the Middle East and Africa. But in this period, Chinese to Central Asia intruders reaction is always very weak. At that time China influence in foreign commercial and culture based on military power, rather than.

Eleventh Century to twelfth Century period, the Song Dynasty (13 century against external aggression and conquest of the Mongols) experience, deepen the Chinese racial superiority, which has become one of the main characteristics of the Chinese. Even today, like Ross Trier that tourists can find Chinese "superiority is to have the motherland proud based. But not that want to make the world change their beliefs, sense of superiority. In front of their own that outstanding achievement". Of course, there are also many other factors also affect the ideology of that period, but the resurgence of Confucian orthodoxy, and thereafter never lost control of its strength.

Lixue (Neo Confucianism.) This new orthodoxy is a Everything is contained therein. ideological system, which in the West has been called the new confucianism. It is the ancient classics more systematic and more complete, and because of its re interpretation of classics of ancient Confucianism and given to more reasoning content. This new form of Confucianism, after processing, to provide more answers to questions of life. Mainly from the Buddha are absorbed is certainly the idealism composition, Chinese intellectuals of Confucian thought is more satisfactory, thus 16 century Christian spiritual void by sea to the descendants of Chinese fill, much less than before. When the missionaries studying religious content poor Chinese classics, they found that behind the Confucian thoughts more articles can be found.

The most outstanding new Confucianism the great is the twelfth Century philosopher Zhu Xi (1130-1200), his position in the history Chinese is sometimes compared to the west, St. Thomas Aquinas (died 1274 years). Can be expected, his works are the first since the Tang Dynasty has good crystallization generations of Confucian work hard, many disciples who received, some basic principles of philosophy to establish their works is Zhu Xi together.

The new Ruli system became the orthodox ideology after 700 years, it is the basis of the first principle of absolute, known as Tai Chi, is not restricted by time and space and the existence of. Tai Chi is reflected in the "unlimited" in the "science", which with the old Confucian meaning, refers to the law or in the form of primitive. Every thing has its reason, and every science is a form of Tai chi. On the other hand, the specific substances consist of "Qi", this gas is vitality or Prakriti, the physical world is composed of material. Therefore, in each of the things, and gas (or rules or material) are indispensable, are complementary to each other. For example, a house must be built with brick (gas), but these bricks must be according to certain design (physical) building up. Obviously this ideological system can be compared with the thought of Platon. Ethical issues Zhu Xi with "evil", that any creatures of nature is formed by the combination of the creatures of the "science" and "Qi". "Science" is itself be the pink of perfection, but in the physical world. It is always the same "gas" together. "Evil", is to "gas" shield "theory". Therefore, "evil" is not automatically with the nature of existence, it is appears along with the environment. (according to the modern view, "dirt itself is not dirt, it is to be in the wrong place.") Human nature is basically good. Thus the highest moral of Confucianism is not to move or retreat determination and honest, the so-called "city", " completely". Relying on full have a genuine and sincere desire, "science" or principle can eliminate "gas" or make them obscure material obstacles. This is still a basic concept Chinese, and explain why, in the day of the Kuomintang and the Communist Party, diplomats or negotiators on both sides of the condemnation of the speech, there is no "lack of sincerity," a more powerful.

Good in nature view, expressed in the famous "Three Character Classic" at the beginning of a few words. This "Three Character Classic" is the earliest generations every schoolchild China book learning, it reflects the Confucius (the Analects) thought. It writes: "Men at their birth, are good in nature, Their natures are much the same, learning phase." It is no wonder that the western missionaries about sin melancholy thoughts, it is difficult to overcome this optimistic view of Confucianism.

In politics, Neo Confucianism thought the king must understand the statecraft real, and through the moral self-cultivation to become a saint. In practice, the orthodox Neo Confucianism emphasized in moral improvement. Through the study of the classics and the examination system, it becomes to instill Confucian principles of increasingly effective tool. For individuals, this philosophy is not dualism monism, because of "science" and "Qi" are complementary, coordinate each other. It offered no hell, heaven and eternal life, no mention of the personal god.

The Ming Dynasty overthrew the Mongols, the re establishment of Chinese in China land rule (1368-1644), the Song Dynasty Neo Confucianism as the Everything is contained therein., the tie Chinese thought inhibition. Emperor of Ming Dynasty took it as a ruling tool. Zhu Xi's philosophical system become dogma. Mencius became the greatest sage Confucius later. The Four Books become all aspiring people spiritual food, like China society back to its own traditional culture can find shelter, as can a reserved ideological system of existing protection it himself. This time launched the famous "stereotyped writing", which is a particular style of parallelism comparison. Its influence can be from the people used to write four six arrogant style and dual sentence to express at this point any thought, this is also the characteristics China traditional style.

Chinese militarism

Rough people certainly despised Confucian scholars, because the latter think, a person with the help of violence, that he could not to win people by virtue. A larger long call "good iron not nail, good man does not become a soldier". It expressed by virtue of their thoughts, they use every opportunity to belittle took power by force. The soldier is ingrained belittling practice value system in the old China in. However, there are few history what empire can be more memorable than Chinese record. Each dynasty is set the world by force. In the Han, Tang, Ming or Qing Dynasty these powerful dynasties, strong expeditionary force had crossed the border into Chinese, Vietnam or Korea, or through Mongolia and Central Asia gally. There have been a few decades, the nomadic tribes, the Royal Army and foreign invaders constantly compete on their own land. Nomadic conquerors Dynasty, actually by occupation samurai to support.

However, the type Chinese military tradition and European or Japanese different. Once the dynasty was established, the government will re light arms. A dynasty, non military can not, but he and his sons were always found, through the civil service to Saint Jun's identity to govern the world, relatively easy. This is undoubtedly due to China economic power always lies in the administrative officials, namely to tax wealth bureaucratic hands, rather than in those obtained by marauding warriors hand wealth. Like the time of Queen Elizabeth and the medieval era Japan, loot adventure at sea, the country on overseas income and prosperous era, in China history is not to be found. One of the reason is undoubtedly Chinese sealing soil column Mao system already disappeared. In China, military is civilian replace things than Japan about early 1 ) years). As America commercial society Ning to civilian government rather than military power. China bureaucracies is always trying to avoid any independent military power.

In the political practice, this means that the use of force is the main problem China police to maintain law and order problems, means how to a number of non armed people keep custody settlement, how to assemble enough power to suppress the bandits who may become. Once the dynasty lay within the Great Wall, no need to destroy the enemy troops in the siege. So we often have such problem, is suitable for the problems in the frontier against grassland professional armed forces need to make Chinese local police system. Chinese peasants are different from the Mongols or Manchuria, they cannot form a national armed situation, into its death pass tribal or national war. As the future of Chairman Mao, the rulers Chinese always eager to make each farmers have become soldiers, but this can only produce a defence rather than attack power. Until modern times, Chinese forces are often like a migrant workers, is in the emergency of autumn recruit way up, like about cheap labor to build the Great Wall, digging a canal or construction of the Burma Road.

Therefore, China soldier is always a part of the state bureaucracy, supported by state funds, and easy to corruption and degeneration. However, the military machine and today's industrial countries rely on technology and equipment of the army of the different Chinese, part of it is not economic. It maintains the dynasty order and unity, which means that the maintenance of peace and prosperity at home; but China maintain social order is the primary way to orthodox principles to instill social behavior (ceremony), followed by the use of rewards and punishment of the temper justice with mercy. The use of force to maintain order, is considered as the last one, acknowledging the didactic and admonishing has failure, and may show the regime has lost the "mandate of heaven" of the people. Therefore, China military tradition contains many non violent methods: mediation, through the third party consultation, espionage, subversion and bribery, corner (away each other's followers), intimidation and bribery, and fraud by all means. In a word, as 4 century BC in ancient books "grandchildren" said, "no war and enemy who is the best policy." The aim is to fight the enemies, not to destroy them, to obtain a psychological rather than physical results. Obviously, this traditional Chinese on deterrence and the mobilization of the nuclear age also has a new meaning.

Chinese individualism

In the eyes of Western observers, Chinese contradictory phenomenon a very be very much puzzled by: abnormal personality rich and colorful, but almost no one enjoys civil liberties tradition. As with all countries, have the ability to create the Chinese writer, artist or craftsman show his character, and to become hermits can retire individualists. But from the perspective of individual rights, what China old society is how individualism?

Now, don't get legal scale western to measure, and might as well as W · T · Heinrich Anton de Bary, to weigh up the China philosopher actually care about and want to solve the problem is what. First, a person must request status or rights in his social environment, in the middle of his compatriots. Confucius said: "if I am not all in one, then what is I? " secondly, Confucius emphasized personal the doings to maintain social order, this is only a problem on the surface of the half. The other half is intrinsic, emphasis on personal self-cultivation. But since the so-called culture, refers to the people to live in "the crowd", establish appropriate relationships with the people around him, and in accordance with the ethical principles to life, to achieve his personality. Selfishness is subject to obligations, and obligations by the social standards. Mencius said: "dear father and son, officials have righteousness, couples are different, Changyouyouxu, friend Yunobu." So Chinese according to his relationships with others, according to the all people rely on each other by "mutual obligations of a relationship" and "road", to express his "self". This does not reduce the importance of conscience and morality. On the contrary, in order to make the people keep in the range of orthodox ideas in this point, can make a moral problem people become more and more important, but these ethical questions, with Francis L · K · Xu's words, is "to the environment for J", rather than in the USA as "taking individuals as the center". The rise in the 16 century a new philosophy, give person with more range of motion. Wang Yangming (1472-1529 ) is a senior official, his thoughts have great influence on the Chinese and japan. He took the lead against the orthodoxy of Neo Confucianism, the people have the public moral nature (conscience), so everyone has intuitive moral in his own. He has become the inherent possibility of saints. Therefore, his task is to complete the moral self innovation. This is mainly to do with learning ability, learning should include thinking, reflection and continue to seek the truth, not only to recite the basic principles, but to rely on the personal practice. Although this does not attack the traditional social order, subjectivism methodology Wang Yangming is asking the person through training, to achieve knowledge and actions, thoughts and behavior or (in today's terms) between the correspondence between theory and practice. This is a very limited form of individualism; but in the final analysis, as Debalisuo pointed out, it would be "more to adapt to the socialist society than modern western individualism". The issue of human rights Chinese now become a widely discussed issue. First, because we USA need to define "human rights" from the welfare and political such action point of significance; second is we need to know the concept, Chinese what concept what, can replace or the same meaning. We already know the different standard of value of Western and Chinese, such studies are urgently needed. Richard Solomon is also engaged in the study, he examines the various stages of Chinese children into society for often must pass through, and points out some Confucian emphasized, such as acceptance of parental authority, self-control, Robin Li and emulate those better than oneself (a good example of learning models), all of these is to train children to avoid a treacherous ministers and traitors, rely on the authority and resentment of authority. Thomas Metzger concluded in the study of nearly of jurists, said after the past works, Chinese dependent authority caused uneasiness, because can obtain the self-expression and Confucian self-cultivation and mitigated. He thought that the Confucian individuals often face difficulties in this: may or will probably suffer a defeat, but morally must still persist (know not to do for). In short, factor values Confucian once deep heart become about the action, is a frequently among a sense of morality, pay attention not to deviate from the correct behavior. The results of the study show that, we in the West have just begun to understand what is the doctrine of Confucius and Mencius; factors which must contain the belief, and still play a role in the Chinese thoughts.

The underdevelopment of Science

The history of science and technology Chinese enable us to face another difficult problem. Until the end of the middle ages, the creation of observations of natural ability and system in the invention of science and Technology (such as records of sunspot China), at least not inferior to and more than Western Europe in many places. China in the development of paper and printing, gunpowder, the mechanical clock, cartography, seismology, pharmacology, magnetic initial findings (Compass), some aspects of mathematics, perfect degree and many handicrafts and cast bronze, pottery and weaving of silk and so on, has the lead in the world. According to China technology historian Joseph Needham said, in the first 13 century, has one batch of technologies introduced into Europe from China. In addition to the above those famous projects, wheelbarrow, with sail trolley, crossbows, kite, drilling technology, cast iron, iron chain bridge, canal locks, before and after the rig, waterproof cabin, stern rudder, connecting rod and piston rod assembly of rotary motion and longitudinal motion conversion of two circle and so on, seems to be in the China than elsewhere in the early to know more.

However, these early brilliant achievements, and no scientific research organization, nor the emergence of a set of scientific principle -- in other words, that is not scientific research as an ongoing work system, the establishment of a social communication, conscious to theory and practice in the development and utilization of the system. The European 17 century have made a breakthrough in this. Why China failed to do so? The reader will think of other inventions Chinese early, such as various bureaucratic administrative methods, including examination system (and do things offensive to God and reason of foot binding the pornography invention). China in many ways than Europe's leading, but later left behind.

In discussing this problem, if we recognize, we think that behoove western in many advanced status of science and technology actually just recently occurred thing today, so we sort of in control theory in the center of Europe's have a high opinion of oneself will be lessons. Joseph Needham concluded that, to the 17 century, Europe and the China in mathematics, astronomy, physics knowledge has been dissolved as a whole, although until 19 end of the century, Chinese botanical knowledge has not kept pace with. He argues that, in Chinese medicine, Chinese and western traditional big two have not yet been combined, although western medicine has made great progress in the 19 century, but before 1900, the actual medical achievement does not exceed the traditional Chinese medicine. (no matter how to say, until nineteenth Century, 80 's, London doctors still use leech bleeding patients.) Even admit that the West in modern chemistry, surgery and many other aspects of the superior position, this is still a relatively problem. Why Chinese behind? But it is worth asking is, why Europe would be full of vitality to advance courageously? This latter problem is perhaps the real mystery, but beyond the scope of this book to discuss. Here let us look at, Chinese life some what factors seem to have hindered the development of modern science and the independent.

In the field of thought, from 13 to nineteenth Century science prevalent within a period of time, Zhu Xi taught that faith is "Gewu" (of things), after which you can then understand. But "Gewu" the meaning of this word does not refer to scientific observation, but the research personnel. China rule learning has been in the relationship between society and the people as the center, rather than on how to conquer nature.

In the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) under the rule of the 17 at the end of the century, some scholars began to take a more practical and criticism of classical Chinese classics and the dogmatic opinions. This is called "Sinology" and "song" (i.e. Neo Confucianism or Neo Confucianism) opposite. This is a part of the general movement to criticize the method of research, and this research method is reflected in the history and the research on. However, despite these budding scholars have significant intelligence, they did not break through the barriers of Confucianism, not very concerned about the material technology. They roll gap analysis of micro masterpiece (the maximum number of 3.3 million chapter), today a memorial to inherit and carry forward the Confucian scholars in the great cultural tradition of the effort of the monument, but did not show them what the original opinion in dealing with new problems.

Another block of scientific development is China scholars failed to formulate a set of relatively complete system of logic, so that people can according to concept to test the concept, and systematically a statement was compared with another statement. Chinese philosophers thought, that it was the need not prove. Unlike the Greek scholars that focus on the distinction between grammar and rhetoric, and not pay attention to distinguish between the abstract and the concrete or the general and special. China writer rely more on the proportion of the general idea, relying on the dual sentence balance, rely on the natural flow. They kind of well-known chain of reasoning method, has been Chinese scholar 21 century as an unalterable statement, but in the Greek scholar's eyes, it is a series of reckon without one's host. Behind the logic of weakness, and China text. With hieroglyphs the cultural heritage passed down from generation to generation, make the text itself has an independent status. They seem to have become a constant entity, but is not only the tool of expression. For example, Confucius and Zhu Xi and the virtues of their countless students disciple to write words, in each has a specific meaning, but the meaning has been draw a forced analogy, give them with broad philosophical interpretation. According to the nature of China language, are not allowed to use other interchangeable use or synonymous words to express these concepts. The five "Renyilizhi letter" (probably meaning equal to English benevolence, justice, courtesy, wisdom and faithful), it is difficult to express in a word or phrase. The wording is strict, in Chinese, are worse than any alphabet. Chinese than western thinkers are more difficult to get rid of the text of the nephew of orange. If you're on the Confucian De is in doubt, it is not admit those who said the five meaning words.

This text of human bondage, also strengthened by the methods of teaching students China. China students is always the first to recite scriptures, and then to understand their. The text only through the eyes and ears, to writing by using the cooperation of hand muscles, then firmly remember, their meaning will be learning and discussion. Scripture familiar component many, need to have a good memory, and memory in learning Chinese characters when provoked a very unusual burden. China language system is authoritarian nature. With the bondage of words and emphasize this point to memory, is to make people don't use their hands in mental work. Of course, the literati is to practice his calligraphy, make it become a kind of art. But once he was dressed in a long gown in the ruling class, he would give up the physical labor, because that is the mark belongs to another social class. Chinese life urgent need to address the problem of life, and knowledge is gained broad road economic security, therefore the literati was attached to those who said the scholar mark: wear a long gown and note all courtesy scribes of life, so that no time or opportunity to engage in physical exercise. Is the common people working by hand, not scholars. So different scholars and craftsmen working in the workshop, also different that need new technology workers working together. The hand brain separation, pioneer, Finch with following early European Science exactly into contrast. Pioneer European science often comes from operating crafts family, even if they become scholars, still building their own laboratory, not affected by social customs stop. In early modern Europe, an intelligent person may both traditional knowledge and skilled craftsmanship. Such cases in Chinese even if some words, is also very rare.

The doctrine of Confucius and Mencius 75

Moreover, seems a bit absurd is, Chinese use printed books by written examination system than in Europe as early as much, it may hinder the development of creative thought and. Medieval Europeans lack of writing materials, rather than the oral argument, and to the 19 century after a number of years, but also rather reluctant to use in oral and written. Perhaps this is the ability to see their wit and reasoning as more important than memory.

Generally speaking, Chinese is backward seems to be due to the lack of motivation rather than lack of ability, is the social condition and not because of its natural intelligence. In short, the scientific underdevelopment is one of industrial economy and military economy not developed. This is attributed to the Confucianism dominated country basically belongs to the agricultural properties and bureaucratic nature of the ruling class, and the traditional strength.

The traditional China is not immutable and frozen, is not a static or lifeless. On the contrary, Chinese constant change and the condition of differ in thousands of ways, but not from the unique cultural and institutional pattern. This general pattern stubbornly persists, because for centuries, various -- economic system, political system, social system, cultural system -- in its territory and to attract sb.'s attention of provide for oneself, balance and stability of the system China. In short, persistent system and culture has reflected the surging momentum and adhere to the principle of inertia, and not moving inertia.

This ingrained in 2000 by Kong Meng China thought pattern in the political life of inertia, why China oppose the thought pattern of modern revolution to go so long road. However, only when we know Chinese conquest of nomads, not only did not destroy it should strengthen the thought pattern; we can truly appreciate the thought pattern of how to have so strong vitality.

The fourth chapter alien rule and the change of dynasties

Sino Russian relations in the coming decades development, inevitably reminiscent of the past relationship Chinese with northern invasion of. But we should not put the past history as a harbinger of future, and it should be as insight inside and look to the future reference materials.

In the past 1000 years, China has more than half of the time ruled by alien invaders. The Japanese militarists planning to conquer the north, and by Chinese puppet to rule, they borrow as many facts of history, the historical fact is one of them. Tanaka Yoshihito and Toihara Kenji sad to say, they put Chinese history research too at home, but there is no research to the nearest. Modern Chinese nationalism is an emerging force in history, the Mongols and Manchus past glorious sign slightly proud scenes, it could never be the same again today.

But history can not forget, this is not because people may think of the future of Russia to make Japan never do, but in order to understand the relationship between China and Russia all kinds of complicated problems. Because nationalism modern Chinese 20 century must delineate the boundary between China and Russia, and behave in the forefront of geography and culture. In the border area, hundreds of years has produced a specific system and the unusual pattern.

Nomadic syndrome omitted

The huge difference exists in East Asia in life, is the grassland and farming the difference between regions, between Asia hinterland plateau nomadic and Chinese to intensive and meticulous farming system based on the difference in rural areas. This difference is very prominent in almost every aspect of.

The grassland sparse population, today in the area of more than 1000000000 people in the area of dry plateau area, there are about 200 million Mongolians and not more than the number of tibetans. The Asian hinterland populated the thing itself, the crowded life and the Central Plains steppe nomads of greatly different its interest. "Nomadic" certainly does not mean that no purpose to travel on the grassland, but according to season the tent and herds from a given area to move to another place, in accordance with the climate and rainfall drop, in order to find grass, must be moved to the mountains in the summer, winter moved to the lowland. As the intensive and meticulous farming system has been formed Chinese life, Asian hinterland by herd of economy also determines where the nomadic life. The herdsmen get food from his flock, with sheepskin clothes, dome tent with a felt made as a residence, to sheep manure as fuel. Because of cultivate land is not very reliable, he would rely on livestock based, relying on his horse to provide liquidity, to deal with the grassland drought. So he must often adjust to changing circumstances, ready for a new adventure. The living habits and not put him tied to the land, but he still couldn't avoid relying on minimal with the settled areas of the trade. He often than farmers free Chinese, at the same time than China landlord is poor, because he could not be accumulated immovable property. He is a hunter and the rider be trained with regularity, so he is a potential warrior.

In the early history of China settled, barbarians archers military offensive forces become a recurring problem in the plain area of the people of all ethnic groups engaged in agriculture. Northern barbarians intruders is very strong, so that China. Several dynasties built since the Barbarians: Han Dynasty regime during the period of Northern Wei Dynasty blank (386-534 ) and the Mongolia nationality establish Liao (907-1127), they are almost the same the Mongol Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368 years) and Manchuria of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911 ) known as.

Chinese in 3 century BC to curb the nomadic invasion defence, Qin Shihuang connected around the walls and the construction of the original the Great Wall. After that, Chinese constantly try to seek safety, or through the defensive attack, or through bribery, money, or through diplomacy and negotiation. In some years, such as the Han, Tang, Ming these years, Chinese native established Dynasty has deep grassland were significant battle. In this hundred years during the aggression and anti aggression, the population had large scale mixed. In Chinese society, has produced a large number of folklore, where barbarians situation, and to cope with their way, in fact, before the arrival of the modern West, prairie nomads have to China provides the historical background of diplomacy and international relations.

Therefore, relations with the Central Asian nomads Chinese not only to Chinese important, but we in the west is also very important, because the modern western has replaced the barbarians threat. The invasion to the modern Chinese of people in the western world, from the point of view of the Confucian way of life point of view, however, is a long list of invasive alien alien culture in a recent invasion. Of course, nomadic and west to the Chinese life impact have nothing in common. But Chinese response to the west, but influenced by them against nomadic people income experience. China agricultural way of life can not be extended to the meadows, and the herdsmen can never dominate Chinese life. This fact leads to the Great Wall outside the border area of Hua Yi the seesaw relationship. This area was Erwin Lattimore aptly called "Chinese Asian hinterland frontier", where extensive cultivation, the mixed economy of agriculture and animal husbandry consisting of a mixed political relations background. Sometimes the nomads became the leader of a settled area leader, sometimes Chinese officials on the border tribal jurisdiction by forum. Attimore pointed out, on the border Chinese retreat and barbarians surrender and dominant power, is the product of two cyclic interaction. A cycle is the rise and fall of Chinese internal dynasties, the next cycle is between the steppe tribes of unity and division. When a nomadic leaders drawn border trade, his power extends to the ground, he would have to settle way. This action may lead to further human barbarians and the Great Wall to the South China, but settled in the end will lead to barbarians energy weakened, and the new regime to the farming area to a brief decline.

The invasion of nomadic people find their way to rule the China only by the China. Usually they won power, is due to listen to a border region cooperation molecular opinion, those who only know how to the set of things, but also maintain an organized government, as long as the inheritance of fate according to Confucian principles, no matter who.

The first few foreign Empire

The Mongols to North China "Cathay" (China ancient name, derived from the word. -- the translator) said, they are on both sides of the the Great Wall, including North China, Manchuria, Mongolia parts, maintain an empire of 200 years (907-1127 years). According to Witt Fogel research income, their way of life is only semi nomadic, because in addition to sheep, horse, pig, they also seem to depend on crop especially millet for students. Indeed, their rise because they across the grassland and farming areas, thus both nomadic cavalry force and reclamation area economy. The establishment of the Empire of the tribal alliance by Yelu family leadership, they adopted many way of governing the country Chinese hereditary monarchy and the Confucianists, thus extending the life of the empire. The results showed a dual national, southern China type, northern barbarians type, the southern half of the attack since the Tang Dynasty by the rule of the northern half of the civil service, and ruled by warrior. In this way, the emperor in a region of the civil service system and come through the examination system for the traditional, while Northern Qi warrior in collection of training, in the selection of guard "woluduo" (ordo), resulting in a English in " horde" (meaning "nomadic cavalry force", be "appearance Lin," or "giants" solution. -- the translator). Finally, in various regions to establish a 12 "woluduo", a total of about 600000 cavalry, as a mobile reserve assault force.

In addition to this interesting dual nature of government, the Khitan Liao government not what contribution to Chinese culture. It has a population of only about 4 million, 1 / 10 and 1 / 20 of the Southern Song Empire population, but the Liao cavalry attack power is very strong, finally forced the song to pay old coins, in order to protect the security of the border. When the Liao North full Jurchen destroyed, establishment of Jin (1127-1234 ), there is still the same pattern: Huayi bound gold Empire both grasslands of cavalry and North China grain, implemented a military attack, forcing Song Shinan to move. (the Northern Song Dynasty, 907-1127 years, the capital in the Yellow River basin of Kaifeng; the Southern Song Dynasty, 1127-1279 years, the capital of South of the Yangtze River in Hangzhou.) However, the Yi Xia Empire achievement is limited to military and not in the culture, its historical significance is primarily as a prelude to future disaster.

The establishment of Mongolia's syndrome and in China slightly during the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368 years), who was later China scholars as Chinese by an unfortunate episode of alien tyranny. In fact, the life of less than 100 years. Gen Gi Khan (about 1167-1227 ) founded by Kublai (1215 -1294 ) is extended to Chinese regime in Mongolia, after the Mongols into China rulers, soon decay collapse. The Mongols did not stand this fiasco deeds in China, and Manchuria people succeed, form sharp contrast to the case, we should analyze.

After the Mongols after two generation fighting game, finally in 1279 the whole China occupied by military force, and by 1368 they were expelled from. The people of Manchuria in the years 19644 is easier to proclaim oneself emperor the Central Plains, and keep the regime, the 19 century China literati to protect the man's life and family possessions. The key difference is the Mongols, not Manchuria people can consolidate and use the Confucian ideological system, in order to achieve their own purposes.

The factors that prevent the Mongol rule according to Chinese China in, the most direct factor may be they failed to absorb Chinese culture, to become their own thing: they are pure nomads, not accustomed to farming and settled life. They were illiterate, language is different, the daily diet and clothing are a type of moral and legal system, they are different from the traditional Chinese. This difficulty because of such a fact: China exacerbated the Mongols but is part of the Empire of Mongolia, and the latter is Gen Gi Khan (Chingis in Mongolian means "Sea King", this is the who in 1206 adopted the title) products and their children and grandchildren organizational genius.

Surprisingly, Gen Gi Khan in the middle stage is a dependency of Mongolia a small tribal leaders, and that he and other tribal people, also not aware of it as the name "Mongolia" represents their common language binding force. He put the grassland tribe, inspire them to go on the early history of the largest territorial conquest. This achievement only reference when favorable environment to the understanding of the central asia.

In about 1200, some settled agricultural society in the area of a piece of something across the zone, to communicate with each other through trade. Chinese is divided into South and North Song Dynasty Hangzhou of Beijing alien dynasty. In a Tubo kingdom of Northwest China. The West Xinjiang has rejected the Turks, and their western Russia Turkey Stan area some Muslims of the kingdom of Turkey, such as Bukhara and Samarkand. Finally, there is the capital to Baghdad's Abbas Khalifa empire in persia. Between these settled countries trade so that they are rich, but they are not a militant, also not strong enough to dominate the neighbor degree. They are attractive to the steppe invaders loot.

In northern Central Asia, another piece of something across the region, inhabited by many nationalities. These are dry plateau nomadic tribes, a mixed degree Turks, Mongols, Tungus, rely on large land animal husbandry for a living. The liquidity they are nomads, and more able to provide for oneself; their patriarchal clan organization so that they can follow the strong leadership.

Gen Gi Khan from the lower nobility through hardship and cut a striking figure, and gain power by subordinates to his personal loyalty. He claimed to represent the forever blue sky, have ruled the world mission. Those who join his tribe, he gave the name of his tribe -- Mongolia. He put the customary law they codify, borrow the Uyghur paper to write, and claimed that it is supreme, generally applicable. He principle of his soldiers by the family, the clan, tribe belongs to the Empire and area. He created a national armed state with all this method. He selected private guard "Daur flower" to form a team, and from the selection of generals. The resulting war machine on the Mongolia flying column, their superior training, good at riding, ruthless. Their daily life is staring at the front for looting property, and looting and stimulate them to continuously expand. Their crossbows enough to wear a bow and arrows, they surprise and be full of craft and cunning tactics, make them invincible, to Asia brings misery. Southern Russia, Persia and Turkey, the descendants of Gen Gi Khan, as in the Chinese, established many khanate. The international scale of imperial Mongolia, so that it can be compared with the cause and cultural system and mixed European expansion. In these two cases, is a representative of the society into other kinds of social work, mouth southern Russia, Persia and Chinese in agriculture in Mongolia invaders, exposed to a wide variety of languages, religions and local customs, and everywhere, they face some common question: how to maintain order, how to through the bureaucracy administration and tax, how to keep their power, so in the final analysis is how to maintain their own characteristics, the unity and power. Not know a single word of the samurai would be capable of turning the laborious task is completed well, really is an amazing thing. The Golden Horde Mongols in southern Russia dominated the 2 plus years, the rule in Persia for 100 years. They are in the two countries, as in Chinese, seems to have established a centralized autocratic political system. In the 13 century, the vast field of contact between across the steppes of Central Asia and the Oasis (strategic core Empire) famous Sao to maintain. This makes Europe first may directly and China contact. The Mongolians, unfortunately their ability to control their attack ability not so strong. In Chinese, they faced what by China rule while still maintaining political control. To do this, they must not only have the reserve force, must be able to maintain order to bring prosperity, but also must make the Han Chinese can play opportunities in the civil service system. The Mongols in the sign slightly at the beginning, we know must hire a civilian executive experience, because these people know how to taxation, finance and including a number of officials. They are China of this work relies mainly on the Han Chinese, but they also in administrative agencies employ the other semi nomadic and many foreigners. Marco Polo ( 1275-1292 years in China) is such a person. There are other foreigners, from Europe to the large number of Persia and Turkey Muslim, and select from the countries of Central Asia to be administrative personnel. The Mongols resumed net Rohan people examination system, but this work did not do a good job, not the best talent into the government of Han nationality.

Spectacular, Marco Polo described under the rule of Kublai in the capital Beijing, he built the expansion of the Empire and from Hangzhou to Beijing Road, the Grande Canale, Hangzhou and Guangzhou as the center of the city, commercial prosperity, show the rule of Mongolia during the heyday of be full of vitality. But the leadership after Kublai soon collapse. 14 century kings are weak, finally the Mongolia tribes in Neijiang. Religion spread its superstitious practices in Mongolia tribes from Tibet and development of Buddhism sect lama. The Lama in China play the gangster, angered the Confucian scholar officials, they rebuked the Mongols to maintain the original culture. The Yellow River disaster caused by flooding water, financial difficulties and finally issued paper money too much, make the regime lost heart. The southern provinces during the rebellion, compete for the throne, where a great man drove out the Mongols, in 1368 founded the Han dynasty. Since the founding of the Ming Dynasty, with guards against Mongolia forces as one of its primary task. Ming Taizu sent troops against the Mongols deep grassland. He recovered Manchuria, prompting new dynasty of North Korea's submission, and finally led to the collapse of the Mongols, the division became the two country. Second the emperor 4 himself conquest of Mongolia. First he help Simon rout Dongmeng, then help Eastern rout of Simon. Even so, Chinese or can not eliminate the threat, because they cannot destroy Gobi Grassland Society, also cannot be Chinese. So they had to repeat the repeat play off one power against another, keep the suzerain vassal relationship with the form of all ethnic groups in Mongolia. This approach eventually led to the fall of the Ming room, because they failed to uniform the northeast frontier as a vassal state and the rise of the Manchu state.

With success

From 1644 to 1911 years Chinese Manchu rule, in the birthplace of language and culture, which is different from the Han chinese. But they can use the traditional method to Confucianism, keep to the Han Dynasty regime as long as any. The secret of the success lies in the fact: although they policy according to Chinese way, their alien origins and background has helped maintain political vitality in the ruling group in their. To understand some of their success, may help explain why the modern Chinese nationalism developed so slowly C

In 1644 the main reason Chinese Manchu conquest, when they entered the China already mastered the statecraft of Confucianism, and make their own political system to adapt with it. They can therefore politically mature to such a degree, because they are China side sleep on the border, where tribal system can combine with the bureaucracy.

Modern western scholars China frontier history, in Lattimore inspired by it, and made an explanation on Chinese with barbarians of social interaction mode. In Chinese native, intensive and meticulous farming system is the basis of bureaucratic government, in this region, land relative to labor is scarce, and the government will rely on the land tax revenue to maintain. In the grasslands, nomadic tribal government system is the basis of. There is scarce compared to human land, and tribal leaders of the power that he could get to his fellow warriors. Chinese people must pass a number of officials to be ruled, and non Han tribes are only to be controlled through the personal affiliation between. People are very lucky, they come from the two systems meet and mix with each other areas. 16 century Manchuria, just in the south of Shenyang River on both sides, the Chinese style of intensive and meticulous farming system. Northwest Manchuria is nomadic area. The northeast part of Manchuria people's home, a part for fishing and hunting riding by and a small amount of farming forest area. The understanding to the south side sleeping properties, so the composition of military command, and not only is the implementation of civil administration. They in this agricultural region strategically set the formal army hereditary, not be subject to the jurisdiction of the civil system of agricultural area, both to maintain a stock to prevent military buffer barbarians invade, and keep a curb local Han Guan any separatist tendencies means; because they can not be ignored, the south is difficult to master, in North China and its contact might in the the Great Wall coastal mountain pass road was cut off.

With the rise in one time, make full use of the strategic position of the edge of their sleep: and they can learn Chinese in there is not completely subject to the Han people. Manchu state created by Nur Ha Che (1559-1626 ), which is a small head south agricultural basin eastern border area. He is like the Mongols in the Gen Gi Khan, put under nearby tribal under rule his own, and in the 17 century, based in Shenyang. His successors conquered the East North Korea allied with the west, Inner Mongolia Mongolia tribes. 1636 says the people for the people, the establishment of the Qing Yi cloth. The Manchu invasion of North China has been several times, but still failed to beat the Ming Dynasty, however, Chinese native Ming regime has gradually declined. The insurgency has been around the world. A leading figure in this world is Han rebel Li Zicheng, his troops to attack cities and capture territories in the northwest everywhere, even into Sichuan and the Yangtze River basin. The leaders finally got the literati's help, established the royal government. In 1644 he captured Beijing, see will be enthroned emperor. But he failed to consolidate his position to force a win from the system. China bureaucrats and for the government to provide talent gentry class has no allegiance to. At the same time, a loyal to the Ming Dynasty generals invited Shanhaiguan manchu. The Manchus were invited to come out, Lee rebels, and left. They completed the conquest of Chinese in 40 years, their empire government over the next 200 years to maintain the stability of. They finished the failed to Han Chinese rebels do, mainly because they were able to create some of the political system.

The first problem with is how to transcend tribal political state to further develop. So they set up local administrative institutions in the territory, and the other is parallel to the military organization, all the Manchu soldiers into eight teams (the Eight Banners Army), each team has a different flag colors. Manchu bannermen have land, but the land is scattered, the army has not become a regional unit. Manchu Mongolian and Han Emperor was absorbed into the system, in their own flag. Nur Ha Che sent the philosophers the flag army leader, but their power is controlled by the central cabinet. In this way, heads of state and their loyal tribal leaders original personal relationship, into the system is not affected by personal emotions.

Finally, at the beginning of the Qing Dynasty emperors like their previous Liao, Jin, Yuan Dynasty emperor, took the Confucian terms, methods and ideas, for the support and maintenance of the political authority, and this is the real intention of Confucianism. They advocate reading Confucian classics, respect for ancestors, national ceremony to Confucius grand ceremonies were held, in written and oral talk on the "Five" (as in the three century Japanese in the "Manchuria" to do), praised the Confucian virtue, and accept the king to the thought of virtue the world. Before they closed the 10 for many years, they set up an imitation of the Beijing civil affairs management prototype of government in Shenyang. They formally founded the Ming government held the six department and other agencies, and with full, Mongolian, Han official post. In their people accept fate, they are fully prepared to how to solve the basic problems of their, namely how to according to the rule of Han Chinese, but also keep the full color.

Some conditions to help them achieve it. First, unlike the Mongols, the West no huge empire to distract them, as long as one to pay attention to the most important China problem on the line. Since they come from the south border, not from the grasslands of Mongolia, they do not need the cultural divide between the skip grassland and farming land. Early two year long reign emperor seal be full of vitality, providing strong administrative leadership: Emperor Kangxi (reigned l662-1722 ) and Emperor Qian Long (reigned 1736-1796) are hard to control the monarch, they often met with the minister dawn every day, concentrate on studying the classics, patrol around the Empire, to maintain a strong personal rule.

People use various methods to maintain its Dynasty vitality is very worthy of study. In order to maintain their ethnic group of color, they closed the home, do not let the Chinese shift, and the north is full as the hunting ground is arranged outside, Chinese agricultural economy. In order to prevent people from the South northward, they built a hundred mile long Liu gate (a big ditch on both sides of the planted willow) to mark the boundary, don't let Han over expansion. They put Manchuria in the organization of a Manchu military government under the. Despite the famine Han Ken households regular flow, but the general says further colonization to limit their Han chinese. In the Han Chinese occupies the southern basin to the north of Manchuria, until the 19 century is still sparsely populated vacuum, became the Russian and Japanese imperialists coveted prize.

In addition to the basic geography, people still want to use pure way of keeping to map stored for a long time. They prohibit Manchu Han intermarriage, are encouraged to maintain custom difference between two group. For example, the Manchu women without foot binding, with no business or engage in labour. They use the Yellow Sect of religion to preserve Manchu clan system. With all its garrison stationed at various strategic locations, to maintain their China military control. Each big city people were set up in the military garrison, on behalf of reserve forces. The only permitted to exist the Han army is anti military, mainly used for inspection of Taoism and prevent banditry, but lacks any offensive warfare training learning 11 .

In order to maintain a strong leadership, several generations of emperors of the Qing Dynasty at the beginning of the founding of the royal princes, regulations can enjoy salary wealth, but don't be over state only one lord. They have to stay in Beijing, don't let the powerful. They tried every means to prevent women and being in power of eunuch, because such historical disasters caused by Guan Ting coup.

In the civil administration of the people China, using a dual appointment system, which is also assigned full, Han officials in charge of important positions. Jonathan Spence once pointed out, first they rely on from the South Han allies, these people are usually in the flag or the servant, is particularly reliable, particularly loyal to with. The result is the practical work done by a competent people, by a loyal people watching him. In the capital, with more than Han Chinese, but in the provinces, the majority Han Chinese officials. In order to attract the most capable of the most promising Chinese for their services, with attention to the examination system to implement, make it possible for attention, as far as possible effective. In order to make the examination system selection out of the Han Scholars to spend their energies, Manchu emperor became a great patron of literature, and presided over the vast library research and compiling program. Spence put the emperor Kangxi described as a "rich man.". He like Dr. Johnson of Britain and France on the one hundred scholars, presided over the encyclopedia "into a famous dictionary and a containing 5020 chapter Pei Wen Yun Fu". His great successor emperor Qian Long launched "twenty four histories" edit and set Chinese literature as "Sikuquanshu". 3462 works in this set of macros. The volume too much inconvenience, printing, hand copied seven. Light is a printed catalogue of chapter 92 of.

Through this work, the Qing government actually conducted a text Inventory (the "Literary Inquisition"), one of its aims is to ban all criticized foreign rulers works. Compilation of people in search of rare and the whole text to incorporate this a big library, also can find out who should be banned or destroyed all the heretical writings. They are a good price to collect rare, even a search from door to door. The book is banned on military or edge services works and anti barbarians that comment, but mainly the glorification of the works. Banned books about 2320 . Argument as L · C · Goodrich, this is the largest ideological domination.

From recent research and that, by the imperial household Bannerman and the valet composition in many ways is parallel to the Beijing formally the secret government. It was a lot of income from land, monopoly, tariff, tax, silk weaving workshop, loan, fines and tribute, to help the court to benefit from the commercial development. At first it for the management of intrauterine eunuch and set to eliminate the defects, the formation of long-term, but soon the internal government itself also corruption. The China alien rulers through the methods and means of these diverse, keep their racial and social status is ecru, maintain their military and administrative control, and still can make the talented people get reputation and promotion. Since the Manchus grasp the secular power of people China, Han talented instead engaged in literary and cultural activities. Early modern China also retains the non nationalist tradition, as long as the rulers of the square, who will rule all it doesn't matter.

In Chinese political life, the rule of the alien experience did not weaken but strengthen the Confucian traditional thoughts, because it is the Confucian thought in general and not a region or race level. Even a foreign emperor also adheres to the doctrine of Confucius and Mencius, this confirms the fact the Confucianists believe firmly, Confucianism is universally applicable Everything is contained therein., statecraft, and no other civilized political philosophy. Political life Chinese like economic terraced rice them, seems to be for something more basic than dynasty or racial problems.

The nature of the Chinese nationalism. There is no doubt, that all the doctrine of Confucius and Mencius the universal thought, means China culture (way of life) is something much more basic than nationalism. China earlier emperors claimed they ruled all civilized people, regardless of race or language differences and how to. The king found people, continue to strengthen the tradition is to their advantage. For any pursues the doctrine of Confucius and Mencius kings, no matter he is Chinese or foreign, is important for the administrative officials of his must keep faithful and true to him, and according to the doctrine of Confucius and Mencius life. As long as a person he was familiar with the Scriptures and to do so, his skin color and language is be of no great importance. Achievements of the barbarian rulers, the recognition of this fact, they become good reading Confucian classics, good at calligraphy and appreciation of Chinese art. As long as they modeled on the ancient "emperor", quoted Kong Meng said, in sacrificial rites, the amnesty, maintain the imperial examination system, the appointment of officials, issued the edict, can prove their legitimacy. If they do this, they will not change Chinese political system, can be accepted by the people of China. This ability to the doctrine of Confucius and Mencius in alien rule exists for a long time, is also a measure of the extent to which the government is a "policy of benevolence and autocratic government" scale. Whether despot who it doesn't matter, as long as he is in the political system embodies the "benevolent appearance", and firmly grasp the power line.

In this way, the long-term experience of foreign domination has created a strange phenomenon: an interesting 19 century Chinese into the modern world, in a major quality of them is the spirit of nationalism, especially backward; however, in their 20 century of revolution, of their own culture or "culture literacy" generations of pride have sparked a new "cultural nationalism", it may be better than that happened in Europe's only political nationalism in the future.

This Chinese and Western culture and the different relationship between political loyalty, worthy of more research. Such as France and Germany, only after Charlie emperor governs two districts, became the various countries. The two countries although often fight, but share the Christian culture. Descartes and Bach, Leibniz and Pasteur, Rousseau and Marx, are the common cultural heritage. China opposite, the government is always associated with the whole culture link in concept. Politics and culture is almost dissolved together. This can be seen from any of the following circumstances, namely from BC 1 years since unification, China always adhere to two political belief: the Chinese empire is uniform, it is all foreign superior.

Before the 13 century the Mongol conquest of Chinese, China superior this belief apparently or can be established, because Chinese broad people, technology, wealth and cultural level are relatively superior. But Chinese emperor to de dragon in the world and the human has the supreme power of thought, the lack of moral Chinese Mongols conquered by force, but was rudely shattered. However, the Ming Dynasty emperors of Han descent stage a comeback, to their virtue and power reiterated the emperor Supreme belief. Then, the emperor reign all this old idea, while in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India and Kolumb before the early kings of America have too, but only in the China stick to modern.

Unity, the ideal belief in Chinese thoughts, long with no civil war and internal stability, order and prosperity together. This belief from the Qing Dynasty there was reborn. When the Eight Banners army in the 18 century under the western Mongolia, Xinjiang and Tibet under Beijing rule, the so-called uniform means nothing more than that "the Chinese Empire" is in fact "East Asian Empire" (Chinese and Central Asia), this is a strategic unit in a long time, but now it has become a political unit. To consolidate the work of the whole region in the Qing Dynasty under the rule, in recent years has expanded by Han nationality of the Kuomintang and the Communist Party, has been China continue to implement. Even today, the two parties still insist, there can be only one China, can't have two China, while the Han nationality of a Chinese behoove to include Mongolia, Tibet, Uygur and many other races, as the minority culture.

Dynastic cycle

Study of 20 at the beginning of the century China history of a basic method, is to think of it as a regime change dynasties blank and intermittent period in the process of. After reading the famous Chinese all dynasties in the twenty four histories of Chinese today, you will think of Sun Zhongshan, Jiang Jieshi and Mao Zedong have seized and the same regime to tissue is an old theme variation. In 2000 China political history, clearly the rhythm and cadence. Since ancient times, even when the dispute may trample Pu the Chinese, most of the Chinese always believe, unity is to achieve.

Any one explore the historical consistency, or by society and civilization as a unit to study history, will feel China historical boundless. Any other places are not so many in the records of the Empire facts, to be historians, or the Marx doctrine and the non Marx's founder, or common political scientist and historian in the idle time to select, sort and summarize. People in these records than in any other book more hope read repeated history. If we can read through Chinese over the past 2000 years of history, we can see it in the future 20 years in the future -- although this is a hope, but also look attractive hope, only the lack of imagination of the talent will be completely indifferent.

Several generations of scholars have very similar to ancient Greece -- China and Rome world in a series of events was impressed: have a paragraph of philosophers contend and Warring States disputes period, has established a unified empire period, the central regime collapse and disintegration time. For example, we note that, Confucius and his disciples about with Platon and Aristotle at the same time; Alexander the great than the earlier 100 years; and the two Rome Han imperial regime also had its heyday in the same era. Similarly, when the two imperial decline, its northern side sleeping barbarians are becoming more and more dangerous, but when the "universal" (to borrow the British historian Toynbee's term, it refers to the ancient in the corner of the world think empire as the world. The translator) -- in the political and economic collapse, foreign religious propagation characteristics can be seen all the suffering people to guide for comfort. Enter the 3 to the 6 century northern nomadic communication Chinese and Buddhism, just with Western Goths and vandals southward invasion and spread of Christianity, namely "barbarism and religion" victory at the same time. All interested in correctly find out the law of human things, can take things two imperial these similarities as the starting point, to study the generalization and deeper. In China history, superficial observer is able to tell at a glance that the most interesting consistency is a series of Han, Tang and two dynasties in central. Before the two dynasties have a paragraph of ideological preparation active period, its mark each weekend all classes of authors and Chinese Taoism since the prevalence of buddhism. Before the two dynasties, and each has a strong but short Dynasty to unify the nation, namely the Qin Dynasty (221- BC 206 BC) and the Sui Dynasty (581 618 years). The Han, Tang and two dynasties once based on the new unified set up, all the Chinese political power extended to the adjacent areas, especially in Central Asia, and the corresponding development of foreign contact.

Scholars have given the similarities between the two dynasties, tried to systematically expounds the historical cycle phenomenon. All these attempts to, is the basic phenomena and diligently recorded China historians have observed, namely the dynastic cycle. Twenty four histories of course some thought again and again, because the record each dynasty historical scholars will be provided rulers families rise, all historical peak and sad death. For example, near the end of each dynasty, recorded natural disasters, earthquake, flood, comets, eclipses and other abnormal phenomena rise more, to prove that the rulers of the road is that he lost the "mandate of heaven".

Indeed, in people and social psychology, self association may have on the dynastic cycle effect. This is because, Dynasty depends largely on its moral authority, so that once it in some things lost "face", could start a process, so that people thought it seems more and more against the regime, so as to accelerate its demise. Once the batch for the ruling class to set the tone of the Confucian scholars of public opinion as a dynasty has lost its reigning moral rights, who also cannot save the dynasty. It is still today in the political life of a China factors.

The decline of the dynasty is often come up with the ruling family increasingly incompetent. The ruling family for generations by the family system on heavy and useless burden. This point from the strong position in the royal family of relatives who was the most notorious, they leave the fertilizer private, lead a luxurious and dissipated life. The court's debauchery meat make rulers increasingly weary. Chinese people will have the danger of Jun. For example, Mongolia is due to the sweat comfort and be vicious beyond measure and bring about the.

Some people even more widely used in economic history to explain Chinese dynastic cycle. The way people pay special attention to the land tax, because in the agricultural economy Chinese, land tax is a major source of government revenue and power. Each dynasty seems to have seen such a process is not satisfied, the land tax more land, so that the bureaucrat class benefit and the Royal tax reduction. In one of the dynasties at the beginning of, usually have to estimate the number of land and population, and logged in a rough survey. The book can be used as a new set of tax base tax. As the years passed, the contradiction between the imperial government and interests on behalf of the government of the people's interests. The ruling class will gradually increase their lands, and adopt various means to not pay land tax, such as the destruction of the tax books, official acquiescence or forge legal documents. This leads to a vicious spiral, which still accept tax farmers land increased tax burden, while at the same time, the government is likely to increase its revenue. In this way, more and more a part of the land to pay more and more taxes. The results were peasant unrest.

In some cases, Dynasty finally overthrew experienced by the peasants revolt fanatical religious leader. Which dynasty are not allowed to exist due to public opposition organization, so the organization can take against secret societies. For example, 14 century Mongolia government corruption and loss of morale, many provinces during the rebellion. Some of the white lotus rebellion is that secret society leaders. They have a symbolic ceremony, esoteric gestures and passwords, blood donation for the league, and the underground organization. Some other rebellion by religious leaders, usually is the Buddhist leader led, he might claim that the Buddha will befall the world. Some of the first claim is legitimate succession before the people in the song dynasty. There are some sweet as ringleaders and entrenched party, chase the deer contend for hegemony, in order to become the most appropriate inheritance "destiny" people. A Hubei the control of most of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, the other the grab a part of Hunan, there is a simultaneous separatist the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, and finally a pirate leader in the rise of Fujian. Each of these leaders are, Li Chao emperor. That finally established the Ming Dynasty people around Nanjing Chinese most affluent area a foothold, he knew how to put the political means and ingenious combination of force power. He is the son, in the rebel to seek a way out when a monk. He Fu Sui civilians, strict discipline, and it is said that ban looting. To 1368 he conquered or regained his opponent and occupied Beijing, where his descendants have ruled for about 300 years, until 1644, his last inherited talent was overthrown.

The Ming Dynasty emperors ruled for 276 years, the Manchu ruled the 267 years, this is an interesting coincidence. This two rule time proves the monarchy's stability, no matter whether the Han people in.

The fifth chapter political tradition

Imperial survival to 1912 years, the year the Wilson was elected president of the USA. Republican leaders grew up in. Today China's influential man just look back seven, eighty years ago, can think of the situation of Beijing red glazed tile in the palace of the Empress Dowager Ci Xi: Royal Xuanhe style, fashion, luxury and waste of tyranny eunuch, bin Fei, Amaryllis, bodyguard, imperial carriage, to see, worship and other red tape. These things just disappear. If you do not see the background to observe the modern Chinese, miss the point, as no review of Washington and Jefferson, Dan Boone (1734-1820, USA frontier pioneers. -- the translator), and Lincoln, American ordinary people and John Rockefeller was born or their rich history, and to observe American.

The bureaucracy

The old Chinese dynasty rule is the development of the most complete the most ingenious bureaucratic system, which is one of the key of the people's Republic of China to understand. For newly encountered bureaucratic problems of Americans, today Chinese how trying to harm and use its advantages to avoid its bureaucratic political tradition, is a Rao interesting problem.

The old government center in the capital. No doubt, Beijing grand symmetrical layout makes it in all the capital the most can be displayed in a ruler as the center of the Royal meteorological. Paris and London than it scattered. Washington and Moscow is the outcome of yesterday, not like Beijing city gate to gate, avenue to Avenue, shows the supreme authority of the Orient autocratic monarch. They built the capital, as the court outside the barrier. Although the demolition of the towering walls and towers in the era, Beijing still four surrounded by moats and walls of the Forbidden City as the center. The Forbidden City, stands in the marble order performance of yellow tiles on the Royal Palace, formed the entire city axis. There is a large artificial hills behind the defense in the north. A broad Boulevard in front, now is a continue south, extended to the square in front of the old city. Any western capital is not so clearly become a symbol of centralized monarchy system.

In Beijing, most of the time in the 13 century, Chinese affairs by the famous officials and households, ceremony, soldiers, punishment, the six part palm. The structure in the early Qin, Han emperor system have been sized, to the Tang Dynasty was formally established. There are two sets of independent administrative bodies of six outside, the military system and the supervisory organ, together with some minor organs: Hanlin academy, Dali temple, Academia Historica, Si and Guanglu temple. The Ming Dynasty set up the "cabinet" in these organs, by the minister to help the emperor ruling. One of the few reform of Qing Dynasty, is in 1729 years is a less formal institutions "grand" to deal with the military affairs, thus becoming the highest executive body in. The Qing Dynasty has a dense region cobweb, the regional distribution of 18 in Chinese province. Each branch if the roads, road following are Fu, state and county. Regional officials and their throughout the territory under assistant constitute the main body of local government. As the classical literature and history education training from Oxford, Cambridge by the British civil service, they are considered to be equal to anything, responsible for policing, taxation, law enforcement case, presided over the imperial examination, supervision and release station, as well as in their area of all official. In theory, they are the parents of the people, and is called, or rather the self proclaimed "parent". The official sub pin Zhi, each product is from. Each product officer has special beautiful robes, including a cap on a colored robes, chest and back, "do tablets". Privilege, title and the identity of treatment, have expressly specified. Officials can enjoy wearing three vertigo Ling, or given to "taizaishaobao" rank. The provincial senior executive between government and local officials in the capital. Provincial officials including a generally under the jurisdiction of the two provincial governor and a lower level of colleagues, is a provincial governor of jurisdiction. Insert the two officials of the course is to enable them to control each other, because it relates to important affairs, they must be combined with action and & played on. In the Qing Dynasty, the governor is often full, but the governor is the Han chinese. There are four exercise their functions and powers in the official governor under governor: (Si Zhengwu), anchashi (judicial), salt transportation and supervision (supervision after the supply of capital potential meter).

This vast Chinese business in business, as in all bureaucracy, with frequent a variety of documents and to deal with. This variety of travel documents, from the specific format and the name we can see that the bureaucratic red tape. To a certain format and is the emperor play book, to subordinate is another format. Each document at the beginning of the sentence are indicated it is upward, or downward parallel. Similarly, in the emperor throne and imperial edicts have specific format. Each document by a quasi do, send, send and receive certain formalities. Hundreds of thousands of paper paper calf personnel for months and years busy copying, registration and distribution of documents. In Beijing the palace archives room, commonly used document programs are more than 100 .

The circulation of documents by the release station. These steps stood as far as imperial Quartet, but only transport document, public property, (such as public funds) and business persons to use. This set of mail system consists of about 2000 stations, they are distributed in five lines and many branch, in-depth northeast, crossing the Mongolia, West Xinjiang and Tibet, arrived in the southeast coastal provinces, and through the central mainland south. In the Ze way round sudden difference et al., with official documentation, in order to have the right to use all means of transport, these tools in different regions may be the horses, camels and donkeys, car or boat. Poor Yi each transfer station horse in an emergency, can be on line 250 miles. In early nineteenth Century, the courier can send documents sent from Guangzhou to Beijing in three weeks. From Shanghai to Beijing for a week.

Central control. With this connection by along the document and personnel post circulation of official net capital, the problem to be solved, is what prompted the local officials to perform a task, to prevent their chain of command. This control, in addition to those special measures to maintain the Dynasty and the Manchus outside, also used the method of all the bureaucratic system general.

The first method is to all the officials by the Emperor himself appointed to the county magistrate. This makes all the officials feel they have to rely on the well, to his personal allegiance. Another method is the rotation position. Few officials can stay in the more than three years, the most they can only be in one place for six years. Normally when an official from one place to another, he had to pass by the capital for Bi, re and the rulers of contact. Thus, China officials is a group of people flow throughout the Empire, not rooted in any one place. Therefore, he must rely on the Mandarin (i.e. Beijing) as a mixed dialect officialdom general. Often a officials arrived at the new school, found that he did not understand the local dialect, so there is more limited in official circles. Another way to prevent the officials in the local root is "avoidance", according to this system, no one can in this province officials, to prevent his family affair, his loyalty to the imperial court of.

Another prevent officials power practices, three years after his father is ting (about 25 months) regulations, during this period, officials and Thumann innocent. As Arthur Wiley said, "this is a 'rest' period, usually occurs in the middle one official career. This enabled him to have a further reflection period, finally able to write he had decided to write the book...... For he restored due to official entertainment diet for injury body, the interest rate payable and due to depletion of energy and".

Bureaucratic principles generally make an official control another officer. This is performed by the common responsibility. The six part of the two book, a Chinese, mutual monitoring. Often after a man famous, sent him his job, so he which position cannot be completely over, also sent many people to accomplish the same task, who also can not completely control. In fact, sometimes set up many offices to perform the same duties, through be repetitious way, to restrict each other. The authorities overlap and the common responsibility of the results, so that each official ridden for a variety of tasks, and each task and all others involved. This is a bit like dozens of partners partnership, a total of negative unlimited liability. Direct control in these by many officials are jointly responsible for the work and produce, the above is "the censorate". In the 56 name were known to Zhongzhi Shi, divided in 15 provinces to road, is responsible for all matters relating to the emperor played on a court with the interests of the people. At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty emperors even invented a "Dear Exhibition" top secret "palace Memorial", the governors to the emperor to the secret report, only by the Emperor himself to read, after reading the instructions are only sent to the presenting himself. Thus, the officialdom have rulers informants.

Inherent malpractice bureaucratic system is very obvious. The form, everything from the bottom up, layer upon layer reported on the top emperor to decide, because the memorial will be sent to the emperor to go there. In this way, a senior officer may choose to a room of the proposal, innovation and lower level officials proposed or no precedent opinion is not easy to reach and dangerous. Do sb.'s bidding is relatively safe, initiative this easy to kill the lower. On the other hand, the top that people's working efficiency because he can't come and adversely affected. All the important issues are his approval. Legislation and case is all by the emperor of the imperial edict to develop. Modern China still affected by the traditional.

Given the imperial bureaucracy to Chinese whole life full of arbitrary power, people can surprise, the number of officials didn't much, and considerable dispersion. According to the preparation, total number of civilian capital and the provinces but nine thousand. Military officials said that only about 7500 people. Of course, in addition there are more and more supernumerary personnel or "alternate" officer, can be sent to handle all kinds of job and not to the real. In addition to a large number of archives and the steward, is Chinese Yamen in writing, recording, discussions, meet and send off an indispensable. The total number of hands the bureaucracy, if the cabinet ministers, car class, included, will undoubtedly have millions of people. However, if the only real rank, has all the qualifications for the emperor, to take action and played on the official step by step, we find that they are few in number, but also scattered around. According to a rough estimate, the total number of less than 3 million or 40000 "official", and their management is one of about 200000000, and in the middle of the nineteenth Century may have been increased to 4 million population of the country. For example, in do to lower seven official, first class officer is responsible for the county magistrate, he 30 million population. Court officials few situation reflects the fact, that which is dependent on the earth gentry class in Rural Leadership and dominate the farmers, it has been stated before.

The government organized as a "corruption case body". Another phenomenon of bureaucratic politics is its great Paul meager. According to the official red book, under the jurisdiction of European countries as big as two province of a governor from the great emperor Paul he received the master, the equivalent of $300 per year. In addition to the nominal salary, plus a collar self-examination and more compensation is not the Treasury library. The governor, for the salary (called "honesty" is equivalent to $41000 per year). But all the people together, so pay is still not initially meet need a must for a large number of staff and special assistant officer.

Court officials must be responsible for all public events they rule to happen, but do not have to be responsible for all public funds. The budget and accounting procedures are very simple. Officials on what we today call "systemic corruption" behavior to make a living, but it's sometimes turned to blackmail and impose exactions on. This is accompanied with the perplexing relationship system will inevitably arise, and each officials must with his boss, colleagues and subordinates to maintain that relationship. In the history of the bureaucratic system, the outstanding point China type of bureaucracy is "blackmail" and appoint people by favouritism, this is each other play the role of twin system. The first approach is to highfalutin form rather than in a sneaky way out. Lower level officials in the performance of their duties, as usual, to feed the boss "to". The number of all the price with the old China to like, have to rely on personal relationships and. "Extortion" is not popular in Chinese than in other living between people more prepared for a supply of sth.. Officials with the extra income too little income Tang letter servants until recently also from each receipts and payments for tips than, is only the amount of money more, its nature is the same.

Nepotistic practices to "blackmail" or "sketch" added convenience, because it makes the violation of public interests and private collusion more secure to rely on. Even the Scriptures also praise dedicated to home, especially filial virtue, think this is higher than that of any obligations of the state. Therefore, the capital tax on the supply of government benefit often with all the officials of every kind of private interests conflict, because everyone to support his family, and for his own future. Officials usually means wealth. Emperor Qian Long's minions and Kun, because of corruption and other charges, in the years 1799 was found emperor Jiaqing shop trial property, according to the time American monetary calculation, to over 1000000000 dollars, this is probably the highest recorded unprecedented and unrepeatable. Another 1841 years when the Opium War was the Manchu minister, after the check that his property totaling about 425000 acres of land, $30000000 worth of gold and silver jewelry, and 9O banks and pawnshops equity. I don't want to say, the western backward in the corruption practices, or not so good. However, in China, until modern corruption is still an accepted practice, be devoid of any sense of shame and act recklessly and care for nobody.

The people's Republic of huge new bureaucratic system, must be based on the tradition as the background of the. Although the total effect is There was no parallel in history., this system is still not established not on the basis of old ones. It is also faced with such a long-standing problem: how to make officials maintain the vigor, efficiency and clean.

Law

In Western tradition, bureaucratic regulation by law. One can resort to the method with protection, against the official privilege. Our western civil liberties on this point. However, the law in Chinese life didn't work out this way, to protect the political rights of individuals or economic status. 3 century BC to the early use of the law, as to assist the autocratic government administrative unified tool. After the Han Dynasty still use some practices of Legalist school, such as family members riding system. In this way, the so-called "Confucian China" despite praise Confucius and ethics, also absorbed some elements of the traditional. Since then the tradition stretches down, and constantly to revive the momentum.

Modern scholars in legal history, is just beginning to consult the Books are numerous., many branches of China legal documents. 8 century Datang law and after the song, yuan, Ming, Qing Dynasties statutes, remains to be the western scholars to analyze. By any standard before modern point of view, China code is obviously the magnificent epic strike out. Also many other aspects of the same China society, China old legal system is the "non modernity", but in the context of view, should not call it immediately is "backward". Early European observers have to Chinese of enforce the law has a deep impression. Only in the 18 , in nineteenth Century, after the reform of the western law and criminal law, Chinese just behind.

However, the legal concept of the other person is fundamentally different from the western. It originated in the ancient Chinese of Justice (natural order) idea, thought the actions of men must accord with justice, whose duty is to safeguard this coordinated. The ruler is to had virtue and not to the law to influence people, so that sensible people will be affected by this type of civilization and noble behavior specification guidelines, without a rope by regulations. According to this theory, only the barbaric, uncivilized people, who didn't follow the teachings and example of the human sage emperor, only need to carry out punishment and the discovery service. Was punished, is that each person according to their identity should take what kind of proper action. But in theory, punishment was always considered that people behave secondary means of distance, its purpose is "to punish check penalty".